Kanlaon

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Mount Kanlaon
Kanlaon Volcano
Drone Shot of Mt. Kanlaon.jpg
Mt. Kanlaon as seen from La Castellana, Negros Occidental
Highest point
Elevation 2,465 m (8,087 ft)
Prominence 2,465 m (8,087 ft)
Listing
Coordinates 10°24′40″N123°07′54″E / 10.4111°N 123.1318°E / 10.4111; 123.1318
Geography
Philippines relief location map (Visayas).svg
Red triangle with thick white border.svg
Kanlaon Volcano
Location in the Visayas
Philippines relief location map (square).svg
Red triangle with thick white border.svg
Kanlaon Volcano
Location in the Philippines
Kanlaon
Country Philippines
Region
Provinces
City/municipality
Geology
Mountain type Stratovolcano
Volcanic belt Negros Volcanic Belt
Last eruption December 9, 2024

Kanlaon, also known as Mount Kanlaon and Kanlaon Volcano (Hiligaynon : Bolkang Kanglaon; Cebuano : Bolkang Kanglaon; Filipino : Bulkang Kanlaon), is an active andesitic stratovolcano and the highest mountain on the island of Negros in the Philippines, as well as the highest peak in the Visayas, with an elevation of 2,465 m (8,087 ft) above sea level. [1] Mount Kanlaon ranks as the 42nd-highest peak of an island in the world.

Contents

The volcano straddles the provinces of Negros Occidental and Negros Oriental, approximately 30 km (19 mi) southeast of Bacolod, the capital and most populous city of Negros Occidental and whole island. It is one of the active volcanoes in the Philippines and part of the Pacific Ring of Fire.

Etymology

The name "Kanlaon" means "[place] of Laon", [2] : 154  a pre-colonial Visayan goddess of creation, agriculture, and justice. The name Laon itself means "the ancient one", from Visayan laon meaning "ancient" or "old." [3]

During the late Spanish colonial period of the Philippines, the volcano was briefly renamed as Malaspina by the Spanish, after the Spanish explorer Alejandro Malaspina of the Malaspina Expedition (1789–1794). [4] [5]

Geography and geology

Kanlaon has a peak elevation of 2,465 m (8,087 ft), although it is reported as 2,435 m (7,989 ft) in some sources, with a base diameter of 30 km (19 mi), and is dotted with pyroclastic cones and extinct craters lining to the north-northwest. Just below and north of the summit is the active Lugud crater. North of Lugud is a 2 by 0.8 km (1.24 by 0.50 mi) caldera known as Margaja Valley, with a small, often seasonal crater lake. [6] The volcano is estimated to have an area of 24,557.60 ha (245.5760 km2). [7]

The volcano has three hot springs on its slopes: Mambukal Hot Springs on the northwest, Bucalan Hot Spring and Bungol Hot Spring. Its adjacent volcanic edifices are Mount Silay and Mount Mandalagan, north of Kanlaon.

La Carlota, La Castellana, Murcia, and San Carlos share the Negros Occidental side of the volcano, while Canlaon, the component city that has jurisdiction on the Negros Oriental side of the volcano, lies on its lower slope about 8.5 km (5.3 mi) ESE of the summit. [6]

Volcanic activity

The most active volcano in the Visayas, Kanlaon has erupted more than 40 times since 1819. Eruptions are typically phreatic of small-to-moderate size that produce minor ash falls around the volcano. In 1902, the eruption was classified as Strombolian, typified by the ejection of incandescent cinders, lapilli, lava bombs and gas fumes. [6] However, its eruptive history has not yet been recorded and larger Vesuvian eruptions generated by this stratovolcano have not yet been known.

Volcanic activity at Kanlaon is continuously monitored by the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS), the government's bureau that monitors the volcanoes and earthquakes in the nation, although unlike Mayon and Pinatubo, the volcano has never been studied in-depth and its age is not yet accurately calculated. Kanlaon Volcano Observatory is located at the campus of La Carlota City College in Barangay Cubay, La Carlota, Negros Occidental. [6]

1996

On August 10, 24 mountain climbers hiked the volcano when Kanlaon erupted without warning, killing British student Julian Green and Filipinos Jamrain Tragico and Neil Perez, who were trapped near the summit close to the crater. The local authorities rescued 17 others, including 10 Belgians, another British climber and six Filipinos while Edwin Ematong, a member of the Negros Mountaineering Club Inc. and who, along with his cousin Neil Perez, guided the British Nationals survived the eruption, having descended the volcano ahead of his group.

One of the rescued Belgians, Caroline Verlinde, said she and her group were about to leave a site near the crater rim when suddenly the volcano ejected ash, stones and hot gas. She ran to a tree for cover and saw her friends being hit by falling hot tephra. She said their Filipino guide told them the smoke billowing out from the crater "was just ordinary." [8] [ citation needed ] [9]

2001

PHIVOLCS noted in a March 22 report that since January, earthquake clusters or occurrences had been recorded by the seismic monitoring network around the volcano. These earthquakes might had signified a reactivation of the volcanic system at depth and could be a precursor to more vigorous activity, such as ash explosions. This interpretation was based on similar earthquake clusters manifested prior to the 1996 phreatic explosion from the active summit crater of the volcano. In view of the possibility of a sudden ash ejection, PHIVOLCS recommended the immediate suspension of all treks to the summit crater until further notice.

2002

An increase in seismic activity during February to April was followed by raising alert on the volcano. An ash eruption occurred on November 28.

2003

On March 17, a gray plume was observed above Kanlaon. Small eruptions produced plumes that rose 100 meters (330 ft) above the crater of the volcano. A total of 46 minor ash ejections were recorded. After July 23, only weak emission was noted and seismic activity returned to normal.

2005

A brief phreatic ash eruption occurred on January 21, producing a 500 meters (1,600 ft) high ash plume. A fine layer of ash fell on Cabagnaan, 5.5 kilometers (3.4 mi) SW of the crater. Ash emissions began again on March 20 and caused minor ashfall in 5-kilometer (3.1 mi) W of the volcano. Until April 4, occasional ash eruptions reached 1 km above the volcano, and small ash fall was reported in La Castellana (16 kilometers (9.9 mi) SW of the crater), Upper Sag-ang, Yubo (5–6 kilometers (3.1–3.7 mi) SW), and Guintubdan (5–6 kilometers (3.1–3.7 mi) WNW). Ash eruptions stopped after May 25.

2006

On June 3, Kanlaon again exhibited restiveness and spewed steam and ash. Alert Level 1 was issued on June 12. Until July 25, a total of 23 ash eruptions were reported. All eruptions were phreatic (i.e. no fresh magma was ejected), and ejected ash and steam up to 2 km (1.2 mi) above the crater. No significant seismic activity had occurred before or after the ash emissions, indicating the explosions were near surface hydrothermal events.

2008

On February 10, PHIVOLCS issued an alert stating that the seismic network at Kanlaon recorded a total of 21 low frequency volcanic earthquakes (LFVQ) during the past 24 hours. Due to the increasing number of recorded volcanic earthquakes, PHIVOLCS raised Kanlaon Volcano's alert status from Alert Level 0 to Alert Level 1, which means the volcano is at slightly elevated unrest and volcanic activity could lead to steam and ash ejections. [10] A 4-kilometer (2.5 mi) Permanent Danger Zone (PDZ) was maintained around the volcano, as sudden explosions may occur without warning, but no eruptions occurred.

2009

From August 23 to September 1, 257 volcanic earthquakes were recorded. Epicenters of the recorded quakes were clustered at the north-west slope which may indicate movement of an active local fault at the slope induced by pressure beneath the volcano. Surface observations did not show any significant change in the steam emission from the crater. PHIVOLCS maintained the alert status at Level 0. [11]

2015

On November 23, Kanlaon had a small, steam-driven explosion. PHIVOLCS raised the alert level to 1 (mild restiveness). On December 12, Kanlaon had two low energy ash eruptions. The minor ash eruption of the volcano reached as high as 984 ft (300 m). On December 27, an ash eruption occurred at Kanlaon's active crater. The eruption plume reached as high as 3,281 ft (1,000 m). Light ashfall were reported in some barangays near Kanlaon Volcano.

2016

On March 29 at 6:20 pm, Kanlaon erupted for 12 minutes which produced a volcanic plume 1,500 m (4,900 ft) above the crater and a "booming sound" was heard in some barangays near the volcano. According to the police department of Canlaon, several fire balls, which were coming from the crater of the volcano, started to flow following a booming sound and causing a bush fire. PHIVOLCS issued alert level number 1. No casualties were reported. [12]

2020

On March 11, PHIVOLCS raised the volcano's alert level from 0 to 1 due to its abnormal activities since March 9. 80 volcanic earthquakes were plotted since then. [13] On June 21, the volcano showed some signs of increased unrest. By June 22, the volcano's activity continued, with a series of tectonic earthquakes ranging from M3.2 to M4.7. A total of 278 earthquakes was observed for a 72-hour period (from June 21, 8AM – June 24, 8AM), possibly related to the magmatic activity underneath the volcano. Earthquakes continued, with steam and fumarolic activity rising 200–300 meters above. PHIVOLCS reminded the public to stay away to the 4-km PDZ (Permanent Danger Zone) around the volcano, as abnormal conditions and sudden phreatic explosions might occur. [14] [15] [16]

2024–2025

Kanlaon erupted on December 9, 2024, releasing a plume of volcanic ash and pyroclastic flow that reached 4,000 m (13,000 ft)

On June 3, PHIVOLCS raised the alert level of Kanlaon from alert level 1 to alert level 2, indicating increasing unrest after an explosive eruption occurred on its summit vent at 6:51 p.m. PST. The eruption produced a voluminous and incandescent plume that rose 5,000 m (16,000 ft) above the vent and a probable short pyroclastic density current (PDC) of approximately 2-3 km down the south and southeastern slopes of the volcano. The eruption lasted for six minutes and was followed by a relatively strong volcanic earthquake. Sulfurous odors and ashfall were reported by communities on the western slope of the volcano, [17] particularly in Bago, La Carlota, La Castellana and Canlaon, [18] and as far as Bacolod, 85 km (53 mi) away. [19] Particles from the volcano were deposited in the form of haze as far as the Bicol Region. [20] On June 5, rains triggered lahar flows in La Castellana. [21]

Evacuations were ordered in Canlaon for five barangays near the volcano [18] and communities located along rivers flowing from the volcano, [22] [23] as well as in La Carlota and La Castellana. A mask mandate was also imposed in San Carlos. [24] At least 4,752 people were displaced, [25] while offices in Canlaon were ordered closed on June 4. [26] Authorities in Negros Occidental were also placed on heightened alert, with ashfall warnings declared in Canlaon, La Carlota and La Castellana. [27] At least 29 flights at Ninoy Aquino International Airport as well as in Iloilo, Cebu, Kalibo, Bacolod, Davao, Cagayan de Oro, General Santos and San Jose Airports were cancelled due to the eruption. [28] [29] On June 4, several flights were cancelled and a mandatory emergency evacuation within a 3-kilometer radius was ordered. [30] Canlaon Mayor Jose Chubasco Cardenas said that 23,622 residents of five barangays were affected. [31] A state of calamity was declared in Canlaon and La Castellana. [32] Around 23,000 hectares of sugarcane fields in Negros Island were affected by the eruption, while a curfew and water rationing was imposed in La Carlota and La Castellana due to sulfur contamination in regular sources. [19] [33] Damages in agriculture were estimated at ₱104.8 million, while 3,890.5 metric tons of crops were lost [34] and at least 3,421 animals and livestock died. [35]

On July 15, PHIVOLCS issued a notice regarding the increasing swelling of Kanlaon's edifice, which has been persisting since mid-June. [36] PHIVOLCS noted that this ongoing ground deformation could indicate magmatic intrusion, potentially increasing the likelihood of eruptive activity. [37]

On September 9, PHIVOLCS reported a series of volcano-tectonic earthquakes from the volcano. [38] On September 10, PHIVOLCS recorded its highest recorded sulfur dioxide emissions in Kanlaon since 2009, at 9,985 tonnes, prompting it to raise warnings over the volcano possibly undergoing its first magmatic eruption since 1902. [39] As a result, at least 248 people were evacuated in Canlaon. [40] The record was surpassed the next day, when 11,556 tons of sulfur dioxide was emitted. [41]

On December 9, PHIVOLCS raised alert 3 over Kanlaon after an explosive eruption occurred at the summit vent at 3:03 p.m. The eruption produced a large plume that rose 3,000 m (9,800 ft) and drifted west-southwest, with pyroclastic flow moving down the southeastern side of the volcano. [42] The eruption generated ashfall that affected areas as far as Panay and Guimaras. [43] Around 87,000 people were evacuated, including 46,900 in La Castellana. [44]

On December 25, PHIVOLCS reported an increase in sulfur dioxide emissions from Kanlaon Volcano, measuring 6,014 tons compared to 3,585 tons on the previous day. Elevated sulfur dioxide emissions are typically associated with rising magma and may indicate the potential for further volcanic activity. [45]

As of January 11, 2025, Kanlaon Volcano, located on Negros Island in the Philippines, remains under Alert Level 3 as declared by the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (Phivolcs). This alert level indicates heightened volcanic unrest, with the potential for sudden and hazardous eruptions. Phivolcs continues to closely monitor the volcano's activity. [46]

Phivolcs advises the public to avoid entry into the 4-kilometer Permanent Danger Zone (PDZ) due to the risk of sudden explosions and hazardous volcanic flows. Communities surrounding the volcano are urged to remain vigilant and adhere to any evacuation orders or advisories from local authorities. [47]

Mythology

The legends, folklore and Mythology surrounding Mount Kanlaon on Negros Island depict it as a site of mythological and spiritual significance, shaped by the fiery forces of its volcano. In ancient Visayan mythology Mount Kanlaon, in Visayan mythology, is deeply tied to the deity Lalahon or Laon , revered as a god or goddess of harvest and fire. Ancient Visayans invoked her for bountiful crops, but if angered, she unleashed swarms of locusts or volcanic destruction. Early accounts, such as by Miguel de Loarca, describe Lalahon as a fire-breathing goddess dwelling in the volcano, while later colonial narratives reinterpreted Laon as a malevolent demon of fire and chaos. Over time, Kanlaon’s mythology evolved, reflecting colonial Christian influence that framed former deities as demonic forces. In some Visayan and Bicolano traditions, Laon became an "evil god" of fire, while modern folklore adapted Western-inspired tales, such as the "Dragon of Kanlaon," symbolizing volcanic eruptions as a dragon’s fiery wrath. These stories, blending ancient beliefs, colonial reinterpretations, and foreign influences, showcase the dynamic and evolving nature of Philippine oral traditions. [48] [49] [50] [51] [52] [53] [54] [55] [56]

In modern Philippine Catholic tradition, people are urged to pray during Kanlaon Volcano eruptions to seek protection and calm fears tied to old folklore. Myths and folklore describe Kanlaon as prison tomb to a powerful and destructive devil or demon. While these beliefs are not part of Catholic teachings, the call to prayer reflects the blending of faith and cultural practices, asking for divine help and safety during natural disasters. [57] [58] [59] [60]

Hiking

The volcano is a favorite spot for mountain climbers and is the centerpiece of Mount Kanlaon Natural Park, a national park originally established on August 8, 1934. [61] [62]

The hiking trails usually start in the center of Barangay Guintubdan. Locals work with several European institutions to introduce the pioneering Unified Hiking Marker System as the first inland tourist location in the Philippines. The system is unified across a number of countries. This makes the mountain more attractive for tourists in an ecologically responsible way.

Trails and markers

Basic Marker - Red color used for difficult or summit trails Stripe-marked trail red.svg
Basic Marker – Red color used for difficult or summit trails
TouristicMarkingArrowR-RAL yellow.svg

In 2016, the first three hiking trails were marked, with additional and more extensive trails added in 2017 from the center of Guintubdan including a trail to the top. These were implemented by Mendel University, in cooperation with the University of St. La Salle and the Department of Environment and Natural Resources. The project was financed by the Czech Embassy in Manila under the Czech Aid Development program. [63] Three color-coded trails using the colors of the Philippine flag were opened:

Left Turn Marker on a blue trail - marker showing the change of direction of the trail Modra turisticka trasa znacka-sipka doleva.jpg
Left Turn Marker on a blue trail – marker showing the change of direction of the trail

This system uses three bars – usually one color in between two white bars, [64] with different meanings attached to different colors: red indicates the most difficult or summit trails, [65] blue for difficult trails and yellow and green for easy or interconnecting trails. These marks may be posted on wooden boards or metallic plates. Basic trail markers are square, 10x10 cm in size. The volunteers marking these trails usually prepare sheet metal or cardboard matrices to keep the signs uniform in size. Any change of direction is marked with arrows of the same color and similar design.

See also

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References

  1. ↑ https://volcano.si.edu/showreport.cfm?wvar=GVP.WVAR20230426-272020 Archived July 15, 2024, at the Wayback Machine Global Volcanism Program, 2023. Report on Kanlaon (Philippines) (Sennert, S, ed.). Weekly Volcanic Activity Report, 26 April-2 May 2023. Smithsonian Institution and US Geological Survey.
  2. ↑ Romualdez, Norberto (August 1914). "A rough survey of the pre-historic legislation of the Philippines". Philippine Law Journal. 1 (1): 149–180.
  3. ↑ Demetrio, Francisco R. (1991). The Soul Book: Introduction to Philippine Pagan Religion. GCF Books. pp. 12, 13, 15.
  4. ↑ An Official Guide to Eastern Asia: East Indies. Imperial Japanese Government Railways. 1917. p. 13.
  5. ↑ Blumentritt, Fernando (1895). Diccionario Mitologico de Filipinas.
  6. 1 2 3 4 "Kanlaon Volcano Page" Archived February 18, 2012, at the Wayback Machine . Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology.
  7. ↑ "FAST FACTS: What you need to know about Kanlaon Volcano". Rappler. June 4, 2024. Archived from the original on June 4, 2024. Retrieved June 4, 2024.
  8. ↑ "Canlaon Volcano Eruption". aenet.org. Archived from the original on December 14, 2017. Retrieved December 13, 2015.
  9. ↑ The Kanlaon Volcano unrest, 10 August-14 October 1996. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. OCLC   793843148.
  10. ↑ "KANLAON VOLCANO BULLETIN 10 February 2008 8:00 AM". PHIVOLCS-DOST. February 10, 2008. Archived from the original on February 26, 2010. Retrieved January 14, 2023.
  11. ↑ "KANLAON VOLCANO ADVISORY Released: 01 September 2009, 9:00 A.M." PHIVOLCS-DOST. Archived from the original on September 8, 2009. Retrieved January 14, 2023.
  12. ↑ "Phivolcs: Kanlaon Volcano erupts, remains under alert level 1". Cnnphilippines.com. Archived from the original on April 2, 2016. Retrieved January 15, 2020.
  13. ↑ "KANLAON VOLCANO BULLETIN: 11 March 2020 10:00 A.M. – Alert Level 0 (normal) to Alert Level 1 (abnormal)". Phivolcs.dost.gov.ph. Archived from the original on November 14, 2020. Retrieved March 16, 2022.
  14. ↑ "KANLAON VOLCANO BULLETIN 22 June 2020 08:00 A.M". Phivolcs.dost.gov.ph. Archived from the original on June 22, 2020. Retrieved March 16, 2022.
  15. ↑ "Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS-DOST) – KANLAON VOLCANO BULLETIN 23 June 2020 08:00 A.M." Phivolcs.dost.gov.ph. Facebook. Archived from the original on July 15, 2024. Retrieved March 16, 2022.
  16. ↑ "KANLAON VOLCANO BULLETIN: 24 June 2020 08:00 A.M". Phivolcs.dost.gov.ph. Archived from the original on June 26, 2020. Retrieved March 16, 2022.
  17. ↑ "KANLAON VOLCANO BULLETIN 03 June 2024 8:00 PM". Phivolcs.dost.gov.ph. June 3, 2024. Archived from the original on July 15, 2024. Retrieved June 3, 2024.
  18. 1 2 "Phivolcs records 43 volcanic earthquakes; 5 Canlaon City villages forced to flee". ABS-CBN. June 4, 2024. Archived from the original on June 4, 2024. Retrieved June 4, 2024.
  19. 1 2 "Sulfur from Kanlaon Volcano eruption renders water unsafe in La Carlota villages". Rappler. June 5, 2024. Archived from the original on July 15, 2024. Retrieved June 5, 2024.
  20. ↑ "Volcanic haze from Kanlaon Volcano reaches Bicol". GMA News. June 7, 2024. Archived from the original on June 7, 2024. Retrieved June 7, 2024.
  21. ↑ "LOOK: 'Muddy stream flow' hits 2 villages in La Castellana, Negros Occidental". Rappler. June 5, 2024. Archived from the original on June 5, 2024. Retrieved June 5, 2024.
  22. ↑ "Canlaon City orders evacuation after eruption of Mount Kanlaon". ABS-CBN. June 3, 2024. Archived from the original on June 3, 2024. Retrieved June 3, 2024.
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  24. ↑ "Negros Occidental under Blue Alert, 3 towns on Negros Island begin evacuation after Kanlaon eruption". GMA News. June 3, 2024. Archived from the original on June 3, 2024. Retrieved June 3, 2024.
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  29. ↑ "Kanlaon Volcano eruption prompts flight cancellations". Rappler. June 4, 2024. Archived from the original on July 15, 2024. Retrieved June 4, 2024.
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  35. ↑ "Kanlaon Volcano eruption killed over 3,000 farm animals in 2 cities alone". Rappler. June 25, 2024. Archived from the original on July 15, 2024. Retrieved June 25, 2024.
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  47. ↑ Staff, PHIVOLCS. "Volcano Monitoring (Alert Levels)". www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph. Archived from the original on January 2, 2025. Retrieved January 10, 2025.
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  49. ↑ Clark, Jordan (September 12, 2017). "Legends of Mount Kanlaon, Negros Island | Negrense Mythology • THE ASWANG PROJECT". THE ASWANG PROJECT. Retrieved January 27, 2025.
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  51. ↑ Blair, Emma Helen; Robertson, James Alexander; Bourne, Edward Gaylord (1903). The Philippine Islands, 1493–1803. Vol. 5 (1582–1583). The Arthur H. Clark Company. Archived from the original on June 4, 2024. Retrieved June 4, 2024.
  52. ↑ Cruz-Lucero, R., Pototanon, R. M. (2018). "Capiznon". With contributions by E. Arsenio Manuel. In Our Islands, Our People: The Histories and Cultures of the Filipino Nation, edited by Cruz-Lucero, R.
  53. ↑ Ago, Budakin #story • 8 Years (March 18, 2017). "Folktale of mount kanlaon". Steemit. Retrieved January 27, 2025.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  54. ↑ Smith, Tony (October 19, 2017). "Democracy in the Philippines". Princeton University Press. doi:10.23943/princeton/9780691154923.003.0002.
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  57. ↑ Reyes, Ronald O. (December 10, 2024). "Church seeks prayer amid eruption of Mount Kanlaon". SunStar Publishing Inc. Retrieved January 29, 2025.
  58. ↑ Ellera, Teresa D. (December 26, 2024). "Lacson urges evacuees to be patient and pray for Kanlaon". SunStar Publishing Inc. Retrieved January 29, 2025.
  59. ↑ "Philippine Church calls for prayer as volcano erupts- UCA News". ucanews.com. Retrieved January 29, 2025.
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