List of important publications in geology

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This is a list of important publications in geology, organized by field. A number of authors have published lists of influential or notable publications in geology, with an emphasis on papers published before 1950. [1] [2] [3] [4]

Contents

Some reasons why a particular publication might be regarded as important:

Foundations

Established the following stratigraphical principles: law of superposition, principle of original horizontality, principle of lateral continuity and the principle of cross-cutting relationships
First publication to clearly articulate the principle of deep time, and to recognize that rocks record the evidence of the past action of processes which still operate today. These ideas were to grow into the idea of uniformitarianism. Hutton is widely regarded as the "Father of Modern Geology". [6]
Hutton's book is widely regarded as unreadable, and may have remained obscure if not for this work by the brilliant prose stylist John Playfair. [7]
The work's subtitle was "An Attempt to Explain the Former Changes of the Earth's Surface by Reference to Causes now in Operation", and this explains Lyell's impact on science: he was, along with the earlier John Playfair, a major advocate of the then-controversial idea of uniformitarianism; that is, that the Earth was shaped entirely by slow-moving forces acting over a very long period of time. This was in contrast to the antiquated geologic idea of catastrophism, which went hand-in-hand with the age of the Earth suggested by biblical chronology. In various revised editions (twelve in all, through 1872), Principles of Geology was the most influential geological work in the middle of the 19th century, and did much to put geology on a modern footing. Charles Darwin frequently acknowledged his deep debt to this book. [9]

Economic geology

Recognized the nature of volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposits as "as being of submarine, exhalative origin" for the first time. [10]
For decades Mineral Deposits was the standard textbook for economic geology. [12]
Established a widely used algorithm to estimate the cutoff grade of a mining operation ultimately having "a profound impact on the mining industry". [13] [14] This algorithm is integrated into numerous mining softwares. [13] [14]
Descriptions of major ore deposits in USA. Updates the earlier Lindgren volume. A basic reference work for economic geologists
Influential publication in the study of porphyry copper.

Geochemistry

Laid the foundations of geochemistry, including the Goldschmidt classification elements.
Major contribution to understand the "global sulphur cycle over geologic time". [15]
A highly cited guide to the use of isotope geochemistry in solving geological problems, and the methods involved. Has been cited more than 3200 times. A second edition was published in 1986. A third edition, with Teresa M. Mensing, was published in 2005, under the title Isotopes: Principles and Applications.

Geochronology

The speech recorded by this volume of Transactions represents the final version of the theory of the age of the Earth which Thomson had been refining since 1862. In it, he proposed that the age of the Earth was "more than 20 and less than 40 million year old, and probably much nearer 20 than 40". [16] His analysis was based on the time it would take the Earth to cool from a completely molten state, and his estimate was consistent with a number of other physical estimates from, amongst others, George Darwin, Hermann von Helmholtz, and Simon Newcomb. This strikingly young age put Thomson in direct conflict with both Uniformitarian geologists and evolutionary biologists, both of whose theories required much longer spans of time to take effect. [17] This paradox of the age of the Earth was resolved only by fuller understanding of the roles of convection and radioactivity in the planet's interior in the early 20th century, and it required understanding of thermonuclear fusion in the Sun developed only in the 1930s to fully explain the stability of the whole solar system over multi-billion year timescales. [18]
With this work based on his thesis Holmes describes the first accurate uranium–lead radiometric dating (specifically designed to measure the age of a rock), assigning an age of 370  Ma to a Devonian rock from Norway, improving on the work of Boltwood who published nothing more on the subject.
In the 1910 International Geological Congress held in Stockholm Gerard De Geer presented to international community his research on glacial lake varves showing that they represented annual layers and were useful in the study of deglaciation.

Geomorphology

In 1837, Agassiz was the first to scientifically propose that the Earth had been subject to a past ice age. [19] This book lays out his theories in print. It represents his theories that vast areas of northern Europe had in the past been covered in ice, extending down to the Caspian and Mediterranean seas. The book represents the birth of the fields of glaciology and glacial geomorphology. [20]
G. K. Gilbert lays the groundwork for many ideas in modern geomorphology, such as the diffusive profiles of hillslopes and the formation of pediments. In addition to its geomorphic significance, it is a description of the last major mountain range to be mapped by Europeans in the contiguous United States. [21] (the Henry Mountains being located in a remote part of Utah) and a description of its formation as a laccolith.
Founding work on karst geomorphology. The study focus on karst phenomena in the Balcans. Albrecht Penck was Cvijić's PhD advisor.
In his 1899 publication William Morris Davis outlines in detail the cycle of erosion model laying the foundations for the study of peneplains, relief development and denudation chronology.
In this work Walery Łoziński publishes his presentation at the 1910 International Geological Congress held in Stockholm and establishes periglacial geomorphology as a new field of study.
This work of Walther Penck challenges the cycle of erosion theory of Davis by proposing for the first time a comprehensive alternative model of landscape evolution. The work was published posthumously by his father Albrecht Penck. [22]
With this work Filip Hjulström marks a shift towards quantitative geomorphology and process geomorphology in Sweden and Europe. The publication is founding stone of the Uppsala School of Physical Geography. It influences the Ph.D. students of Hjulström Anders Rapp, Valter Axelsson, Åke Sundborg and John O. Norrman.
Laid the foundations of the scientific investigation of the transport of sand by wind. [23]
In this book King establishes for the first time the major landform of Africa namely the African Surface. Subsequently the concept would be expanded and modified. King did also argued for scarp retreat and pediplanation in the book.
Work commended for its originality [24] and credited to begin quantitative fluvial geomorphology. [25]
With this publication Linton "stimulated discussion" on the origin of tors. In 1994 it was noted by John Gerrard that the article had been widely cited. [26]
Championed the concept of dynamic equilibrium in geomorphology. [27]
One of the first measurements of chemical erosion and one of the first quantitative assessments on the relative role of chemical and mechanical weathering in cold climates.
An article by Stoddart that proved "devastating" for the field of climatic geomorphology. It has been credited as a contributing factor for the decline in the popularity of field in the late 20th century. [28] [29]
Widely cited version of the Varnes system of landslide classification first introduced in 1958.

Geophysics

A classic reference on the Earth's magnetic field and related topics in meteorology, solar and lunar physics, the aurora, techniques of spherical harmonic analysis and treatment of periodicities in geophysical data. [30] Its comprehensive summaries made it the standard reference on geomagnetism and the ionosphere for at least 2 decades. [31]

Geotechnical engineering

The book is regarded as the "basis of modern soil mechanics". [32]
Establishment of the rock quality designation (RQD). [33]
Introduced the rock mass rating system.
Introduced the Q-system, a widely used rock mass assesment method in tunneling.
Introduced the Geological Strength Index.

Hydrogeology

The work contains the first determination of Darcy's law.
Inferred the fact that both "water and the porous structure" of an aquifer are "elastically compressible". [34] [35]
The work establishes the well function, permitting calculations of transmissivity and storability and from aquifer test data under ideal conditions.

Mineralogy and petrology

Systematic treatise of then known minerals and gemstones as well as other rocks, the first since Pliny's Natural History .
"[T]he first modern textbook on mineralogy." [36]
Influential work in petrography. [37]
The first mapping of "progressive metamorphism through the use of mineral isograds". [38]
Established the concept of metamorphic facies. [39] [40]
Originally published in 1928, it applied the principles of chemistry to petrological problems. [41]
Considered a benchmark paper in the study of fluid inclusions. [42]
Considered a benchmark paper in the study of coal petrology. [43]
Demonstrated experimentally that granite can crystallize from felsic melt. Results are presented in a chemical-mineralogical ternary diagram.
Defining study of Zeolite facies metamorphism.
A condensation of Rock-Forming Minerals (1962), a 5-volume comprehensive treatise of the physical, chemical, mineralogical, petrological and optical properties of essentially all minerals with nontrivial abundances to be found in terrestrial rocks. Also presents information regarding common origins and associations of each mineral, as well as a practical commentary on how to distinguish each mineral from others which may appear similar.
The reinterpretation of the Troodos ophiolite, which serves a reference in ophiolite studies. Miyahiro challenged prevailing view of ophiolites as slices of ordinary oceanic crust noticing geochemical similarities of the Troodos ophiolite with island arcs starting "a major paradigm shift in the ophiolite concept". [44]
First outline of the classification of granite into I and S types.
One of the first outlines of the International Union of Geological Sciences classification of plutonic rocks.
Established the TAS classification of volcanic rocks.
Igneous Petrogenesis has long been a key reference and advanced introductory book to the science of igneous petrology.
Originally published in 1993; presents the thermodynamic basis for modern, quantitative petrology and systematically reviews metamorphism for most rock types. Popularly also known as the "big blue book".

Petroleum geology

Original work on seismic sequence stratigraphy. [45] [46]

Plate tectonics

First book to marshall considerable geological evidence that the continents are mobile relative to each other around the North Atlantic (mainly). It uses Evan Hopkins booklet (On the connection of geology with terrestrial magnetism, 1844), but adapts its data to a plutonist point-of-view.[ citation needed ]
First book to show geological evidence that some continents were linked with each other: Suess set out his belief that across geologic time, the rise and fall of sea levels were mappable across the earth—that is, that the periods of ocean transgression and regression were correlateable from one continent to another. His theory was based upon glossopteris fern fossils occurring in South America, Africa, and India. His explanation was that the three lands were once connected in a supercontinent, which he named Gondwána-Land (nowadays usually written Gondwanaland). However Suess mistakenly believed that the oceans flooded the spaces currently between those lands.
Moreover, Suess expressed views in this book on the connection between Africa and Europe. Eventually, he concluded that the Alps to the north were once at the bottom of an ocean, of which the Mediterranean was a remnant. Suess was not correct in his analysis, which was predicated upon the notion of "contractionism"—the idea that the Earth is cooling down and, therefore, contracting. Nevertheless, he is credited with postulating the earlier existence of the Tethys Ocean, which he named in 1893.
Suess also introduced in this book the concept of the biosphere, which was later extended by Vladimir I. Vernadsky in 1926. [47]
Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane was the second book to marshall considerable geological evidence that the continents are mobile relative to each other on the surface of the Earth. His theory was based upon numerous matches between the topography, paleontology and past climate of continents now separated by oceans. At the time of publication his ideas were not taken seriously by most of the geological community as he could not provide a mechanism for continental motion, but his ideas form the foundations of the modern theory of plate tectonics.
Summarized geological arguments for continental drift, with particular reference to Southern Africa and South America. It is considered a benchmark paper [48] in paleogeography.
"[A] widely circulated report to the Office of Naval Research" [...] that "was the most referenced work in solid earth geophysics in the years 1966-1968". The "paper stimulated intense research and is part of what is the major advance in geologic science of this century." [49]
Proposed the Wilson Cycle, a key development in the theory of plate tectonics during the Plate Tectonics Revolution.
Introduced mantle convection in the form of mantle plumes as an explanation for volcanic anomalies such as Iceland. [50] [51] [52]

Sedimentology and stratigraphy

First statement of three fundamental laws of geology: the law of superposition, the principle of original horizontality, and the principle of cross-cutting relationships. [53] : 9 
A foundational work in biostratigraphy. [54] "...Cuvier and Brongniart integrated that enriched geognosy with the geohistorical perspective: the structural sequence of formations and their fossils was turned into a temporal sequence or narrative of ecologically distinctive periods punctuated by occasional sudden changes". [55]
William Smith's famous 1815 geological map of part of Great Britain Geological map Britain William Smith 1815.jpg
William Smith's famous 1815 geological map of part of Great Britain
The first geological map covering such a large area in detail, [56] and is one of the first stratigraphical analyses to utilize paleontological indices. [57] A rough sketch of the map was drawn in 1801 [58] possibly influencing Alexandre Brongniart when he visited England in 1802. [55]
Argument for the existence and relevance of deep sea deposist on land which had until then been rejected by influential geologists.
The basis for the widely used folk classification for clastic and carbonate rocks
Provided new evidence and revived interest for the Precambrian world-wide glaciations.

Structural geology

"one of the first reports of an attempt to scale deformation experiments on a rock-analogue material (clay) and to conduct detailed kinematic and strain analyses of the three end-member types of faulting (thrust, normal, and strike-slip)". [59]
Expanded on Ernest Masson Anderson's earlier (1905) "recognition of the surface boundary condition of zero shear stress". [60]
Began a whole school of structural geology that used the techniques of continuum mechanics to understand rock structures. [61]
Widely cited publication on the microstructure of mylonites. It is credited for contributing to a transition in tectonic structural geology towards a kinematic approach. [62]
Much cited reference work in microtectonics.

Paleontology

By the time of Karl Alfred von Zittel's death in 1904 it this book series was regarded the "most comprehensive and trustworthy" work on Paleontology. [63]
A definitive multi-authored work of some 50 volumes, written by more than 300 paleontologists, and still a work in progress. It covers every phylum, class, order, family, and genus of fossil and extant (still living) invertebrate animals. Raymond C. Moore was the founder and first editor. [64]
and
With these two publications Adolf Seilacher established the concept of ichnofacies. [65]

Seismology

Defined a version of elastic anisotropy using transversely isotropic media that could be analyzed through the use of Thomsen parameters. Most cited paper in the history of geophysics.[ citation needed ]

Tectonics

An influential review of fault properties, dynamics and growth, how they fail, and how this links to seismology. Highly cited (>2700 citations).[ citation needed ]
The first paper to lay out the now widely accepted model for formation of sedimentary basins by tectonic stretching of the lithosphere (mechanical thinning), followed by lowering of the basin by the cooling of upwelled, hot asthenosphere at depth below it (isostatic deepening). Highly cited (>2200 citations).[ citation needed ]

Volcanology

Contains the first detailed description of a volcanic eruption in western culture – the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in what is now known as a plinian eruption in 79 CE. [67]
Summarized scientific knowledge obtained from the 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée.
The 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens in Washington state, USA, allowed volcanologists to document first hand a large number of volcanic processes which hitherto had been only inferred. It spurred a revitalization of the whole discipline of volcanology. This anthology of papers was amongst the first to present new data gained during the eruption.[ citation needed ]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geology</span> Scientific study of the composition, structure, and history of Earth

Geology is a branch of natural science concerned with the Earth and other astronomical objects, the rocks of which they are composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Modern geology significantly overlaps all other Earth sciences, including hydrology. It is integrated with Earth system science and planetary science.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gabbro</span> Coarse-grained mafic intrusive rock

Gabbro is a phaneritic (coarse-grained), mafic intrusive igneous rock formed from the slow cooling of magnesium-rich and iron-rich magma into a holocrystalline mass deep beneath the Earth's surface. Slow-cooling, coarse-grained gabbro is chemically equivalent to rapid-cooling, fine-grained basalt. Much of the Earth's oceanic crust is made of gabbro, formed at mid-ocean ridges. Gabbro is also found as plutons associated with continental volcanism. Due to its variant nature, the term gabbro may be applied loosely to a wide range of intrusive rocks, many of which are merely "gabbroic". By rough analogy, gabbro is to basalt as granite is to rhyolite.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mafic</span> Silicate mineral or igneous rock that is rich in magnesium and iron

A mafic mineral or rock is a silicate mineral or igneous rock rich in magnesium and iron. Most mafic minerals are dark in color, and common rock-forming mafic minerals include olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite. Common mafic rocks include basalt, diabase and gabbro. Mafic rocks often also contain calcium-rich varieties of plagioclase feldspar. Mafic materials can also be described as ferromagnesian.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Basalt</span> Magnesium- and iron-rich extrusive igneous rock

Basalt is an aphanitic (fine-grained) extrusive igneous rock formed from the rapid cooling of low-viscosity lava rich in magnesium and iron exposed at or very near the surface of a rocky planet or moon. More than 90% of all volcanic rock on Earth is basalt. Rapid-cooling, fine-grained basalt is chemically equivalent to slow-cooling, coarse-grained gabbro. The eruption of basalt lava is observed by geologists at about 20 volcanoes per year. Basalt is also an important rock type on other planetary bodies in the Solar System. For example, the bulk of the plains of Venus, which cover ~80% of the surface, are basaltic; the lunar maria are plains of flood-basaltic lava flows; and basalt is a common rock on the surface of Mars.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rhyolite</span> Igneous, volcanic rock, of felsic (silica-rich) composition

Rhyolite is the most silica-rich of volcanic rocks. It is generally glassy or fine-grained (aphanitic) in texture, but may be porphyritic, containing larger mineral crystals (phenocrysts) in an otherwise fine-grained groundmass. The mineral assemblage is predominantly quartz, sanidine, and plagioclase. It is the extrusive equivalent of granite.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geomorphology</span> Scientific study of landforms

Geomorphology is the scientific study of the origin and evolution of topographic and bathymetric features generated by physical, chemical or biological processes operating at or near Earth's surface. Geomorphologists seek to understand why landscapes look the way they do, to understand landform and terrain history and dynamics and to predict changes through a combination of field observations, physical experiments and numerical modeling. Geomorphologists work within disciplines such as physical geography, geology, geodesy, engineering geology, archaeology, climatology, and geotechnical engineering. This broad base of interests contributes to many research styles and interests within the field.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rock (geology)</span> Naturally occurring mineral aggregate

In geology, rock is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloid matter. It is categorized by the minerals included, its chemical composition, and the way in which it is formed. Rocks form the Earth's outer solid layer, the crust, and most of its interior, except for the liquid outer core and pockets of magma in the asthenosphere. The study of rocks involves multiple subdisciplines of geology, including petrology and mineralogy. It may be limited to rocks found on Earth, or it may include planetary geology that studies the rocks of other celestial objects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trachyte</span> Extrusive igneous rock

Trachyte is an extrusive igneous rock composed mostly of alkali feldspar. It is usually light-colored and aphanitic (fine-grained), with minor amounts of mafic minerals, and is formed by the rapid cooling of lava enriched with silica and alkali metals. It is the volcanic equivalent of syenite.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Andesite</span> Type of volcanic rock

Andesite is a volcanic rock of intermediate composition. In a general sense, it is the intermediate type between silica-poor basalt and silica-rich rhyolite. It is fine-grained (aphanitic) to porphyritic in texture, and is composed predominantly of sodium-rich plagioclase plus pyroxene or hornblende.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phonolite</span> Uncommon extrusive rock

Phonolite is an uncommon shallow intrusive or extrusive rock, of intermediate chemical composition between felsic and mafic, with texture ranging from aphanitic (fine-grained) to porphyritic (mixed fine- and coarse-grained). Phonolite is a variation of the igneous rock trachyte that contains nepheline or leucite rather than quartz. It has an unusually high (12% or more) Na2O + K2O content, defining its position in the TAS classification of igneous rocks. Its coarse grained (phaneritic) intrusive equivalent is nepheline syenite. Phonolite is typically fine grained and compact. The name phonolite comes from the Ancient Greek meaning "sounding stone" due to the metallic sound it produces if an unfractured plate is hit; hence, the English name clinkstone is given as a synonym.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lithology</span> Description of the physical characteristics of a rock unit

The lithology of a rock unit is a description of its physical characteristics visible at outcrop, in hand or core samples, or with low magnification microscopy. Physical characteristics include colour, texture, grain size, and composition. Lithology may refer to either a detailed description of these characteristics, or a summary of the gross physical character of a rock. Examples of lithologies in the second sense include sandstone, slate, basalt, or limestone.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Magma chamber</span> Accumulation of molten rock within the Earths crust

A magma chamber is a large pool of liquid rock beneath the surface of the Earth. The molten rock, or magma, in such a chamber is less dense than the surrounding country rock, which produces buoyant forces on the magma that tend to drive it upwards. If the magma finds a path to the surface, then the result will be a volcanic eruption; consequently, many volcanoes are situated over magma chambers. These chambers are hard to detect deep within the Earth, and therefore most of those known are close to the surface, commonly between 1 km and 10 km down.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peridotite</span> Coarse-grained ultramafic igneous rock type

Peridotite ( PERR-ih-doh-tyte, pə-RID-ə-) is a dense, coarse-grained igneous rock consisting mostly of the silicate minerals olivine and pyroxene. Peridotite is ultramafic, as the rock contains less than 45% silica. It is high in magnesium (Mg2+), reflecting the high proportions of magnesium-rich olivine, with appreciable iron. Peridotite is derived from Earth's mantle, either as solid blocks and fragments, or as crystals accumulated from magmas that formed in the mantle. The compositions of peridotites from these layered igneous complexes vary widely, reflecting the relative proportions of pyroxenes, chromite, plagioclase, and amphibole.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Granitoid</span> Category of coarse-grained igneous rocks

A granitoid is a generic term for a diverse category of coarse-grained igneous rocks that consist predominantly of quartz, plagioclase, and alkali feldspar. Granitoids range from plagioclase-rich tonalites to alkali-rich syenites and from quartz-poor monzonites to quartz-rich quartzolites. As only two of the three defining mineral groups need to be present for the rock to be called a granitoid, foid-bearing rocks, which predominantly contain feldspars but no quartz, are also granitoids. The terms granite and granitic rock are often used interchangeably for granitoids; however, granite is just one particular type of granitoid.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Intrusive rock</span> Magmatic rock formed below the surface

Intrusive rock is formed when magma penetrates existing rock, crystallizes, and solidifies underground to form intrusions, such as batholiths, dikes, sills, laccoliths, and volcanic necks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rock cycle</span> Transitional concept of geologic time

The rock cycle is a basic concept in geology that describes transitions through geologic time among the three main rock types: sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous. Each rock type is altered when it is forced out of its equilibrium conditions. For example, an igneous rock such as basalt may break down and dissolve when exposed to the atmosphere, or melt as it is subducted under a continent. Due to the driving forces of the rock cycle, plate tectonics and the water cycle, rocks do not remain in equilibrium and change as they encounter new environments. The rock cycle explains how the three rock types are related to each other, and how processes change from one type to another over time. This cyclical aspect makes rock change a geologic cycle and, on planets containing life, a biogeochemical cycle.

Igneous petrology is the study of igneous rocks—those that are formed from magma. As a branch of geology, igneous petrology is closely related to volcanology, tectonophysics, and petrology in general. The modern study of igneous rocks utilizes a number of techniques, some of them developed in the fields of chemistry, physics, or other earth sciences. Petrography, crystallography, and isotopic studies are common methods used in igneous petrology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Igneous rock</span> Rock formed through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava

Igneous rock, or magmatic rock, is one of the three main rock types, the others being sedimentary and metamorphic. Igneous rocks are formed through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava.

Mihir Kumar Bose (1933–2009) was an Indian geologist and a professor at the Presidency College, Kolkata. He was known for his studies on igneous petrology and was an elected fellow of the Geological Survey of India, Indian National Science Academy, and the Indian Academy of Sciences. The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, the apex agency of the Government of India for scientific research, awarded him the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize for Science and Technology, one of the highest Indian science awards for his contributions to Earth, Atmosphere, Ocean and Planetary Sciences in 1976.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tonalite–trondhjemite–granodiorite</span> Intrusive rocks with typical granitic composition

Tonalite–trondhjemite–granodiorite (TTG) rocks are intrusive rocks with typical granitic composition but containing only a small portion of potassium feldspar. Tonalite, trondhjemite, and granodiorite often occur together in geological records, indicating similar petrogenetic processes. Post Archean TTG rocks are present in arc-related batholiths, as well as in ophiolites, while Archean TTG rocks are major components of Archean cratons.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Mather, Kirtley; Mason, Shirley L., eds. (1967) [1939]. A Source Book In Geology, 1400–1900. Source Books in the History of the Sciences. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN   978-0674822771.
  2. ↑ Mather, Kirtley, ed. (1967). A Source Book in Geology, 1900–1950. Source Books in the History of the Sciences. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN   9780674822757.
  3. ↑ Cloud, Preston (1970). Adventures in Earth History: being a volume of significant writings from original sources . W. H. Freeman. ISBN   978-0-7167-0252-8.
  4. ↑ White, George Willard (1951). Essays on History of Geology. Ayer Publishing. ISBN   978-0-405-10464-0.
  5. ↑ Dean, Dennis R. (1992). James Hutton and the history of geology . Ithaca: Cornell University Press. pp.  30–83. ISBN   9780801426667.
  6. ↑ "James Hutton: The Founder of Modern Geology | AMNH". American Museum of Natural History. Retrieved 2023-01-25.
  7. ↑ Gould, Stephen Jay (2001). Time's arrow time's cycle : myth and metaphor in the discovery of geological time (11th print. ed.). Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. p.  61. ISBN   9780674891999.
  8. ↑ Online facsimile
  9. ↑ From the dedication in Voyage of the Beagle: To Charles Lyell, Esq., F.R.S.: This Second Edition Is Dedicated with Grateful Pleasure, As an Acknowledgment That the Chief Part of Whatever Scientific Merit This Journal and the Other Works of the Author May Possess, Has Been Derived from Studying the Well-Known and Admirable PRINCIPLES OF GEOLOGY."
  10. ↑ Ohmoto, Hiroshi (1996). "Formation of volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits: The Kuroko perspective". Ore Geology Reviews . 10 (3): 135–177. Bibcode:1996OGRv...10..135O. doi:10.1016/0169-1368(95)00021-6.
  11. ↑ "Waldemar Lindgren | American geologist | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2023-01-25.
  12. ↑ "Waldemar Lindgren | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2023-01-25.
  13. 1 2 AbdollahisharifI, J.; BakhtavarIl, E.; Anemangely, M. (2012). "Optimal cut-off grade determination based on variable capacities in open-pit mining". Journal of the Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. 112 (12).
  14. 1 2 Goycoolea, Marcos; Lamas, Patricio; Pagnoncelli, Bernardo K.; Piazza, Adriana (2020). "Lane's Algorithm Revisited". Management Science . 67 (5): 3087–3103. doi:10.1287/mnsc.2020.3685.
  15. ↑ Böttcher, Michael E.; Hoefs, Jochen (2013). "In memoriam Dr Heimo Nielsen". Isotopes in Environmental and Health Studies. 49 (1): 1–2. Bibcode:2013IEHS...49....1B. doi:10.1080/10256016.2013.754437. PMID   23421947.
  16. ↑ Dalrymple, G. Brent. The age of the Earth. Stanford University Press, 1994. pp. 14, 43
  17. ↑ Dalrymple, 1994, p. 14-17.
  18. ↑ Stacey, Frank D. (2000). "Kelvin's age of the Earth paradox revisited". Journal of Geophysical Research . 105 (B6): 13155–13158. Bibcode:2000JGR...10513155S. doi: 10.1029/2000JB900028 .
  19. ↑ E.P. Evans: "The Authorship of the Glacial Theory Archived 2019-12-31 at the Wayback Machine ", North American review Volume 145, Issue 368, July 1887. Accessed on February 25, 2008.
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