Mesopotamian Marshes

Last updated
Mesopotamian Marshes
Tigris-Euphrates alluvial salt marsh
Chibaish Marches, Iraq - An Nasiriyah.jpg
Chibaish Marshes
Ecoregion PA0906.svg
Location of the Mesopotamian Marshes (Tigris-Euphrates alluvial salt marsh)
Ecology
Realm Palearctic
Biome flooded grasslands and savannas
Borders
Geography
Area35,572 km2 (13,734 sq mi)
Countries
Conservation
Conservation status Critical/endangered [5]
Protected3,070 km² (9%) [6]

The Mesopotamian Marshes, also known as the Iraqi Marshes, are a wetland area located in Southern Iraq and southwestern Iran as well as partially in northern Kuwait. [7] [1] [2] [3] [4] The marshes are primarily located on the floodplains of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers bound by the cities of Basra, Nasiriyah, Amarah and a portion of southwestern Iran and northern Kuwait (particularly Bubiyan Island). Historically the marshlands, mainly composed of the separate but adjacent Central, Hawizeh and Hammar Marshes, used to be the largest wetland ecosystem of Western Eurasia. The unique wetland landscape is home to the Marsh people, who have developed a unique culture tightly coupled to the landscape – harvesting reeds and rice, fishing, and herding water buffalo. [8] [9] [10]

Contents

Draining of portions of the marshes began in the 1950s and continued through the 1970s to reclaim land for agriculture and oil exploration. In the late 1980s and 1990s, during the presidency of Saddam Hussein, this work was expanded and accelerated to evict Marsh people from the marshes. [11] Before 2003, the marshes were drained to 10% of their original size. [12] After the American overthrow of Hussein in 2003, the marshes have partially recovered but drought along with upstream dam construction and operation in Turkey, Syria and Iran have hindered the process. [13] Since 2016 the Mesopotamian marshes have been listed as an UNESCO Heritage Site. [14]

Geography

Satellite image of the Mesopotamian Marshes, 2000-2009 Mesopotamian Marshes 2000-2009.gif
Satellite image of the Mesopotamian Marshes, 2000–2009
Mesopotamian Marshes in 2007 IraqMarshesAnnotated.jpg
Mesopotamian Marshes in 2007

As their name suggests, the Mesopotamian Marshes are located in the larger region which used to be called Mesopotamia. Modern day Mesopotamia is now occupied by Iraq, parts of eastern Syria, south-eastern Turkey, southwest Iran, and northern Kuwait. The marshes lie mostly within southern Iraq and a portion of southwestern Iran and northern Kuwait. Originally covering an area of 20,000 km2 (7,700 sq mi) and divided into three major areas, the Central Marshes lie between the Tigris and Euphrates, while the Hammar Marshes lie south of the Euphrates and the Hawizeh Marshes are bound east of the Tigris. Before the 2003 Invasion of Iraq, about 90% of the marshes had been drained.

The marshes lie on a flat alluvial plain, as the Euphrates decreases only 12 m (39 ft) in elevation during its last 300 km (190 mi) while the Tigris falls 24 m (79 ft). This delta provides an environment that allows the Tigris and Euphrates to meander, forming distributaries. The Euphrates has often terminated near Nasiriyah into the Hammar Marshes as its flow slows. The Tigris can distribute some of its flow into the Central and Hawizeh marshes as it slows near Amarah. Downstream of Amarah, though, several of its tributaries originating in Iran allow the Tigris's flow to increase, and it maintains a steady course thereafter. The three marshes once provided an intertwined environment, particularly during periods of flooding as the rivers overflowed. [15]

Central

The Central Marshes receive water from influxes of the Tigris's distributaries, namely the Shatt al-Muminah and Majar al-Kabir south of Amarah. The Tigris serves as the marshes' eastern boundary while the Euphrates serves as its southern boundary. Covering an area of 3,000 km2 (1,200 sq mi), the marshes consist of reed beds and several permanent lakes including Umm al Binni lake. The Al-Zikri and Hawr Umm Al-Binni lakes are two of the notable lakes and are 3 m (9.8 ft) deep. [15]

Hammar

Water buffalos are found in the marshes. The seal of a scribe employed by an Akkadian king shows the sacrifice of water buffaloes. Kerkini lake - Kerkini village.jpg
Water buffalos are found in the marshes. The seal of a scribe employed by an Akkadian king shows the sacrifice of water buffaloes.

The Hammar Marshes are primarily fed by the Euphrates and lie south of it with a western extent to Nasiriyah, eastern border of the Shatt al-Arab and southern extent of Basrah. Normally, the marshes are a 2,800 km2 (1,100 sq mi) area of permanent marsh and lake but during period of flooding can extend to 4,500 km2 (1,700 sq mi). In periods of flooding, water from the Central Marsh, fed by the Tigris can overflow and supply the marshes with water. Hammar Lake is the largest water body within the marsh and has an area of 120 km (75 mi) by 250 km (160 mi), with depths ranging between 1.8 m (5.9 ft)-3 m (9.8 ft). In the summer, large portion of the marshes' and lake's shore are exposed, revealing islands that are used for agriculture. [15]

Hawizeh

The Hawizeh Marshes lie east of the Tigris and a portion lie in Iran. The Iranian side of the marshes, known as Hawr Al-Azim, is fed by the Karkheh River, while the Tigris distributaries Al-Musharrah and Al-Kahla supply the Iraqi side, only with much less water than the Karkheh. During spring flooding, the Tigris may directly flow into the marshes. The marshes are drained by the Al-Kassarah. This river plays a critical role in maintaining the Al-Hawizeh marshes as a flow-through system and preventing it from becoming a closed saline basin.

The marshes are 80 km (50 mi) from north to south and about 30 km (19 mi) from east to west, covering a total area of 3,000 km2 (1,200 sq mi). Permanent portions of the marshes include the northern and central portion while the southern part is generally seasonal. Moderately dense vegetation can be found in the permanent areas along with large 6 m (20 ft)-deep lakes in the northern portions. [15] As the Hawizeh Marshes fared the best during the draining, they can facilitate the reproduction of flora, fauna and other species in Central and Hammar marshes. [16]

Ecology

Mesopotamian Marshes at night, southern Iraq; reed house (Mudhif) and narrow canoe (Mashoof) in the water, 2019 hwr l`rq lyl.jpg
Mesopotamian Marshes at night, southern Iraq; reed house (Mudhif) and narrow canoe (Mashoof) in the water, 2019

The marshes constitute a flooded grasslands and savannas ecoregion, also known as the Tigris-Euphrates alluvial salt marsh. The ecoregion includes both the Mesopotamian Marshes and the Shadegan Ponds, a wetland on the lower Karun River in neighboring Iran. [17] The marshes are integral to coastal health, filtering out pollutants and waste before they reach the Gulf, [18] though this capacity was significantly degraded after their draining. [19] The marshes also serve as spawning and nursery sites for coastal fish and shrimp species. [20]

The seasonal and permanent marshlands are dominated by aquatic plants, including reeds ( Phragmites australis ), cattail rushes ( Typha domingensis ), and papyrus sedge (Cyperus papyrus). Riparian forests of poplar (mainly Populus euphratica ), tamarisk ( Tamarix pentandra and Tamarix meyeri ), and willow (mainly Salix acmophylla ) occur on islands and river banks. [5] [21]

The marshes are home to 40 species of bird and several species of fish. It demarcates a range limit for a number of bird species. Flamingos, pelicans and herons inhabit the marshes. The marshes were once home to a large number of birds and the stopover for many other migratory birds as they traveled from Siberia to Africa. At risk are 40% to 60% of the world's marbled teal population that live in the marshes, along with 90% of the world's population of Basra reed-warbler. [22] Also at risk are the sacred ibis and African darter. [23] A subspecies of the hooded crow known as the Mesopotamian crow is found in this part of southern Iraq. [24] Seven species are now extinct from the marshes, including the Indian crested porcupine, the Bunn's short-tailed bandicoot rat and the marsh gray wolf. [25] The draining of the marshes caused a significant decline in bioproductivity; following the Multi-National Force overthrow of the Saddam Hussein regime, water flow to the marshes was restored and the ecosystem has begun to recover. [26]

Considerable confusion has existed relating to the status of the Eurasian otter and the endemic maxwelli subspecies of the smooth-coated otter in the region, but recent surveys have confirmed that both still survive. [27]

Inhabitants

Maʻdān live in secluded villages of elaborate reed houses throughout the marshes, often only reached by boat. Fish, rice cultivation, water buffalo and other resources are also used in their daily lives. In the 1950s, there were an estimated 500,000 Marsh Arabs. This population shrank to about 20,000 following the draining and Saddam's violent reprisals, and between 80,000 and 120,000 fled to neighboring Iran. [28] Following the 2003 Iraq invasion, Marsh Arabs have begun to return to the marshes.[ citation needed ] Many hacked down the dikes and dams that Saddam had built. [29]

The Iraqi government has provided support via channels like the Iraq Cultural Health Fund, which funds Marsh Arabs in their efforts to protect traditional cultural practices. [30] Nevertheless, Marsh Arabs remain one of Iraq’s most underserved populations, struggling to obtain healthcare, clean drinking water, and adequate nutrition. [31] [32] [33]

As the marshes become increasingly saline and polluted, many Marsh Arabs are once again being forced to relocate. [34] For those who remain, their traditional lifestyle is threatened. [32] The marshes supplied 60 percent of Iraq’s fish; that number has dwindled to the single digits. [35] This, combined with the lack of potable water for raising water buffalo, is driving some Marsh Arabs to marsh perimeters, where they farm grain. [19]

History

Campaign in the marshes of southern Babylonia during the reign of Ashurbanipal. Showing Assyrian soldiers on boat chasing enemies trying to run away; some are hiding in the reeds. Campaign in southern Iraq of Ashurbanipal - fighting in the marshes.jpg
Campaign in the marshes of southern Babylonia during the reign of Ashurbanipal. Showing Assyrian soldiers on boat chasing enemies trying to run away; some are hiding in the reeds.

In the 4th millennium BCE, the first literate societies emerged in Southern Mesopotamia, often referred to as the "Cradle of Civilization", and the first cities and complex state bureaucracies were developed there during the Uruk period. Due to the geographical location and ecological factors of the Fertile Crescent, a crescent-shape fertile area running from the basins of the Nile in Egypt, northwards along the Mediterranean coast in Palestine and Israel, and southwards again along the Euphrates and the Tigris towards the Persian Gulf, civilizations were able to develop agricultural and technological programmes. The crucial trigger was the availability of wild edible plant species. Farming arose early in the Fertile Crescent because the area had a large quantity of wild wheat and pulse species that were nutritious and easy to domesticate. [36]

In the 10th and 11th centuries, the marshes were the site of the state of Batihah founded by 'Imran ibn Shahin.

Draining and subsequent restoration efforts

1994 map of the Mesopotamian Marshes with draining features Iraq marshes 1994.jpg
1994 map of the Mesopotamian Marshes with draining features

The draining of Mesopotamian Marshes began in the 1950s with the Central Marshes and gradually accelerated as it affected the two other main marshes until early in the 21st century with the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The draining of the marshes was intended at first to reclaim land for agriculture along with oil exploration but later served as a punishment for Shia Arabs in response to the 1991 uprisings in Iraq. The draining of the marshes was largely due to dams, dykes and other diversion structures constructed into Iraq but were exacerbated by upstream dam construction in Syria and Turkey. [25]

While the British engineers worked with the Iraqi government, Frank Haigh developed the Haigh Report in 1951. His report recommended a complex of canals, sluices, and dykes on the lower portions of both the Tigris and Euphrates. These water control structures could be used to drain marshes therefore creating profitable farmland. In 1953, construction began on the Third River or Main Outfall Drain and later the Saddam River which would drain water from the Central Marsh under the Euphrates and through a canal eventually into the Persian Gulf. [25] Work on the Third River and other draining projects, particularly for the Hawizeh Marsh, quickly progressed in the 1980s during the Iran–Iraq War in order to afford Iraqis a tactical advantage in the marshes. [15] Part of the Hammar Marshes was also drained in 1985 to clear area for oil exploration. [37]

After the 1991 Gulf War, Shia Muslims in southern Iraq rebelled against Saddam Hussein, who in turn crushed the rebellion and further accelerated the draining of the Central and Hammar marshes in order to evict Shias that have taken refuge in the marshes. [15] With the exception of the Nasiriyah Drainage Pump Station, the 565 km (351 mi) Third River was completed in 1992 and two other canals were constructed south and nearly parallel to it. One, the Mother of Battles canal, was constructed to divert the flow of the Euphrates south below the Hammar Marsh. Second, the 240 km Loyalty to Leader Canal also known as the Basrah Sweetwater Canal, which originates in the lower Euphrates region, collected water from the terminus of the Gharraf River and diverted it under the Euphrates, away from the Central Marshes and below the Hammar Marshes towards Basrah. [15] [38] The Glory River was also constructed to divert water from the Tigris's southern-flowing distributaries east and parallel along the Tigris until they reached the Euphrates near its confluence with the Tigris at Qurna. [15]

By the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the marshes had lost 90% of their size from the previous decades.[ citation needed ] The Central and Hammar Marshes were nearly drained and only 35% of the Hawizeh Marshes remained. [12] After the invasion, locals destroyed dikes. The combined efforts of the Iraq government, United Nations, U.S. agencies and record precipitation in Turkey helped begin a restoration of the marshes. [39] As of late 2006, 58% of the original marshes had been reinundated. [40] The Nasiriyah Drainage Pump Station was completed in 2009, affording the Third River to be used for agricultural drainage. [41] Recent drought and continued upstream dam construction and operation in Turkey, Syria, and Iran have reduced the marshes to around 30% of their original size by 2009. [13] Turkey has built at least 34 dams on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, threatening marsh recovery. [42] [43] [20] [44]

From a high of around 75% restored in 2008, the wetlands receded to 58% of their average pre-drained level by spring 2015. Meanwhile, as the water level fell, salinity increased to 15,000 parts per million in some areas, up from 300 to 500 ppm in the 1980s. "When the river water levels were high, the low-saline Tigris washed over the marshes, cleansed them, and pushed the salty residue into the saltier Euphrates, which flows along the western edge. But now the Tigris is so low that the Euphrates provides most of the water in the marshes." [45]

The government prioritizes providing water to cities along the Tigris and Shatt al-Arab, resulting in reduced flow to the marshes. [34]

Threats From Climate Change and Pollution

Temperatures in the region have risen over 0.5 degrees Celsius per decade, causing drought in Iraq and in neighbors whose waters flow into the Tigris and Euphrates. [34] Combined with upriver dams, this reduction in water has caused the three primary marshes to fragment into ten smaller marshes. [35]

Massive amounts of untreated sewage and other pollutants are dumped into the Tigris and Euphrates, moving downstream into the marshes and further degrading the water quality. [34] [46] [47]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Euphrates</span> River in Turkey, Iraq, and Syria

The Euphrates is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of Western Asia. Together with the Tigris, it is one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia. Originating in Turkey, the Euphrates flows through Syria and Iraq to join the Tigris in the Shatt al-Arab in Iraq, which empties into the Persian Gulf.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geography of Iraq</span>

The geography of Iraq is diverse and falls into five main regions: the desert, Upper Mesopotamia, the northern highlands of Iraq, Lower Mesopotamia, and the alluvial plain extending from around Tikrit to the Persian Gulf.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tigris</span> River in Turkey, Iraq, and Syria

The Tigris is the eastern of the two great rivers that define Mesopotamia, the other being the Euphrates. The river flows south from the mountains of the Taurus in Turkey, through the Syrian and Arabian Deserts, before merging with the Euphrates and reaching to the Persian Gulf.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tigris–Euphrates river system</span> River system in the Middle East

The Tigris–Euphrates river system is a large river system in Western Asia that flows into the Persian Gulf. Its primary rivers are the Tigris and Euphrates, along with smaller tributaries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marsh Arabs</span> Indigenous people of southern Iraq

The Marsh Arabs, also referred to as Ahwaris, the Maʻdān or Shroog —the latter two often considered derogatory in the present day—are Arab inhabitants of the Mesopotamian marshlands in the modern-day south Iraq, as well as in the Hawizeh Marshes straddling the Iraq-Iran border.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amarah</span> City in Maysan, Iraq

Amarah, also spelled Amara, is a city in south-eastern Iraq, located on a low ridge next to the Tigris River waterway south of Baghdad about 50 km from the border with Iran. It lies at the northern tip of the marshlands between the Tigris and Euphrates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Karun</span> River in Iran

The Karun is the Iranian river with the highest water flow, and the country's only navigable river. It is 950 km (590 mi) long. The Karun rises in the Zard Kuh mountains of the Bakhtiari district in the Zagros Range, receiving many tributaries, such as the Dez and the Kuhrang. It passes through the city of Ahvaz, the capital of the Khuzestan Province of Iran, before emptying to its mouth into Arvand Rud.

The wildlife of Iraq includes its flora and fauna and their natural habitats. Iraq has multiple biomes from mountainous region in the north to the wet marshlands along the Euphrates river. The western part of the country is mainly desert and some semi-arid regions. As of 2001, seven of Iraq's mammal species and 12 of its bird species were endangered. The endangered species include the northern bald ibis and Persian fallow deer. The Syrian wild ass is extinct, and the Saudi Arabian dorcas gazelle was declared extinct in 2008.

Al-Qurnah is a town in southern Iraq about 74 km northwest of Basra, that lies within the conglomeration of Nahairat. Qurna is located at the confluence point of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers to form the Shatt al-Arab waterway. Local folklore holds Qurnah to have been the original site of biblical paradise, the Garden of Eden, and location of the Tree of Knowledge.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Glory River</span> Canal in Iraq

The Glory River , Glory Canal or Prosperity Canal is a shallow canal in Iraq about two kilometers wide built by Saddam Hussein in 1993 to redirect water flowing from the Tigris river into the Euphrates, near their confluence at the Shatt al-Arab. It helped cause an environmental and humanitarian disaster since it diverted natural water flow from the Central Marshes and effectively converted much of the wetlands into a desert.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Draining of the Mesopotamian Marshes</span> Saddam Husseins campaigns to drain marshes and force population transfer

The Mesopotamian Marshes were drained in Iraq and to a smaller degree in Iran between the 1950s and 1990s to clear large areas of the marshes in the Tigris-Euphrates river system. The marshes formerly covered an area of around 20,000 km2 (7,700 sq mi). The main sub-marshes, the Hawizeh, Central, and Hammar marshes, were drained at different times for different reasons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hammar Marshes</span> Marshes in Southern Iraq; a UNESCO World Heritage Site

The Hammar Marshes are a large wetland complex in southeastern Iraq that are part of the Mesopotamian Marshes in the Tigris–Euphrates river system. Historically, the Hammar Marshes extended up to 4,500 km2 (1,700 sq mi) during seasonal floods. They were destroyed during the 1990s by large-scale drainage, dam and dike construction projects. Since 2003, they are recovering following reflooding and destruction of dams.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hawizeh Marshes</span> Marshes in Iran and Iraq; UNESCO World Heritage site

The Hawizeh Marshes are a complex of marshes that straddle the Iran–Iraq border. The marshes are fed by two branches of the Tigris River in Iraq and the Karkheh River in Iran. The Hawizeh marsh is critical to the survival of the Central and Hammar marshes also make up the Mesopotamian Marshes, because they are a refuge for species that may recolonize or reproduce in other marshlands. Hawizeh Marshes are drained by the Al-Kassarah. This river plays a critical role in maintaining the marshes as a flow-through system and preventing it from becoming a closed saline basin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Central Marshes</span> Marshes in Iraq; UNESCO World Heritage site

The Central or Qurna Marshes are a large complex of wetlands in Iraq that, along with the Hawizeh and Hammar marshes, make up the Mesopotamian Marshes of the Tigris–Euphrates river system. Formerly covering an area of around 3000 square kilometres, they were almost completely drained following the 1991 uprisings in Iraq and have in recent years been reflooded.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nasiriyah Drainage Pump Station</span> Building in Nasiriyah, Iraq

The Nasiriyah Drainage Pump Station is a land drainage pumping station in Iraq 10 km southeast of Nasiriyah in the province of Dhi Qar. The station pumps farm run-off collected by the Main Outfall Drain (MOD) north of the Euphrates River in Dhi Qar and Muthanna provinces to a siphon under the Euphrates where it is then returned to the MOD and eventually discharged in the Persian Gulf. The pump station relieves water back-up and is a critical component of a larger agricultural drainage system designed to drain 1.5 million hectares of land in order to reduce soil salinity. Consisting of 12 pumps, each with a 20 m³/second capacity, it is the largest drainage pump in the Middle East.

Water supply terrorism involves acts of sabotage to a water supply system, through chemical or biological warfare or infrastructural sabotage. Throughout military history and the history of terrorism, water supply attacks have been perpetrated by political groups, intending to scare, cause death, or drought.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lower Mesopotamia</span> Region between Euphrates and Tigris

Lower Mesopotamia is a historical region of Mesopotamia. It is located in the alluvial plain of Iraq from the Hamrin Mountains to the Faw Peninsula near the Persian Gulf.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mashoof</span>

A mashoof, also transliterated mashuf, is a long and narrow canoe traditionally used on the Mesopotamian Marshes and rivers of southern Iraq. It was widely used by the Marsh Arabs, or Ahwaris, as a fishing boat, water taxi, and primary means of transportation for people and goods. The mashoof's skinniness makes it an ideal vessel for navigating between the reeds and grasses of the marshes.

References

  1. 1 2 Reinink-Smith, Linda; Carter, Robert (2022). "Late Holocene development of Bubiyan Island, Kuwait". Quaternary Research. 109: 1–23. Bibcode:2022QuRes.109...16R. doi:10.1017/qua.2022.3. S2CID   248250022.
  2. 1 2 Irzoqy, Israa Mahmooed Mohammed; Ibrahim, Lamia Flaieh; Al-Tufaily, Hodoud Mohamed Abboud (2022). "Analysis of the environmental reality of the marshes and its sustainable development". IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 1002 (1): 7–15. Bibcode:2022E&ES.1002a2010I. doi: 10.1088/1755-1315/1002/1/012010 .
  3. 1 2 Hurst, Christon J. (13 May 2019). The Structure and Function of Aquatic Microbial Communities. Springer. ISBN   978-3-030-16775-2.
  4. 1 2 Wilson, Anthony (15 November 2017). Swamp: Nature and Culture. Reaktion Books. ISBN   978-1-78023-891-3.
  5. 1 2 "Tigris-Euphrates alluvial salt marsh". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund., accessed 30 June 2020
  6. ↑ Dinerstein, Eric; Olson, David; et al. (June 2017). "An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm". BioScience. 67 (6): 534–545. doi: 10.1093/biosci/bix014 . PMC   5451287 . PMID   28608869.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) Supplemental material 2 table S1b.
  7. ↑ "Mesopotamian Marshes". earthobservatory.nasa.gov. 2002-03-03. Retrieved 2022-07-02.
  8. ↑ "The past, present and future of the Mesopotamian marshes". 24 September 2021.
  9. ↑ Broadbent, G., "The Ecology of the Mudhif," in: Geoffrey Broadbent and C. A. Brebbia, Eco-architecture II: Harmonisation Between Architecture and Nature, WIT Press, 2008, pp 15-26
  10. 1 2 McIntosh, Jane (2008). The First Civilizations in Contact: Mesopotamia and the Indus. ABC-CLIO. ISBN   978-1-57607-907-2.
  11. ↑ "Iraq's marshes, once drained by Saddam, named world heritage site". Reuters. 2016-07-17. Retrieved 2022-06-04.
  12. 1 2 CURTIS J. RICHARDSON AND NAJAH A. HUSSAIN (June 2006). "Restoring the Garden of Eden: An Ecological Assessment of the Marshes of Iraq" (PDF). www.biosciencemag.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-06-06.
  13. 1 2 Muir, Jim (24 February 2009). "Iraq marshes face grave new threat". BBC News. Retrieved 7 August 2010.
  14. ↑ "Iraqi marshlands named as Unesco world heritage site". TheGuardian.com . 18 July 2016.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Azzam Alwash; Suzanne Alwash; Andrea Cattarossi. "Iraq's Marshlands - Demise and the Impending Rebirth of an Ecosystem" (PDF). University of Reno, Nevada. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 7 August 2010.
  16. ↑ Curtis J. Richardson, Peter Reiss, Najah A. Hussain,3 Azzam J. Alwash, Douglas J. Pool (February 2005). "The Restoration Potential of the Mesopotamian Marshes of Iraq". Science Magazine. Retrieved 7 August 2010.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  17. ↑ "Tigris-Euphrates alluvial salt marsh". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund.
  18. ↑ Newman, Susan Dunreath (December 2007). "The Plight of the Marsh Arabs, an Environmental and Human Rights Crisis". Advances in Nursing Science. 30 (4): 315–328. doi:10.1097/01.ans.0000300181.71724.c7. PMID   18025867.
  19. 1 2 Richardson, Curtis J.; Hussain, Najah A (June 2006). "Restoring the Garden of Eden: An Ecological Assessment of the Marshes of Iraq". BioScience. 56 (6): 477–489. doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2006)56[477:RTGOEA]2.0.CO;2.
  20. 1 2 Richardson, Curtis J., Peter Reiss, Najah A. Hussain, Azzam J. Alwash, and Douglas J. Pool. “The Restoration Potential of the Mesopotamian Marshes of Iraq.” Science 307, no. 5713 (2005): 1307–11. doi : 10.1126/science.1105750.
  21. ↑ Naval Intelligence Division (2014) Iraq & The Persian Gulf. Routledge, Sep 3, 2014.
  22. ↑ "Iraq's Marshes Show Progress toward Recovery". Wildlife Extra. Archived from the original on 9 May 2010. Retrieved 7 August 2010.
  23. ↑ Harper, Nicki (March 14, 2007). "Marsh Arabs of Iraq". Sprol. Archived from the original on 15 December 2018. Retrieved 7 August 2010.
  24. ↑ "Mespotamian Crow". kuwaitbirds.org, accessed 8 July 2020
  25. 1 2 3 Askari, Masour (February 12, 2003). "Iraq's Ecological Disaster". International Review. Archived from the original on 18 January 2021. Retrieved 7 August 2010.
  26. ↑ U.S. National Aeornautics and Space Administration. 2008
  27. ↑ Al-Sheikhly, O.F.; and Nader, I.A. (2013). The Status of the Iraq Smooth-coated Otter Lutrogale perspicillata maxwelli Hayman 1956 and Eurasian Otter Lutra lutra Linnaeus 1758 in Iraq. IUCN Otter Spec. Group Bull. 30(1).
  28. ↑ ROJAS-BURKE, JOE (May 14, 2003). "IRAQ'S MARSH ARABS, MODERN SUMERIANS". Simply Sharing. Archived from the original on 27 May 2011. Retrieved 7 August 2010.
  29. ↑ "Iraq's Famed Marshes Are Disappearing—Again". Science. 2015-07-09. Archived from the original on February 18, 2021. Retrieved 2023-07-19.
  30. ↑ Akerman, Iain. “'Ark Re-Imagined' - Reviving the Cultural Heritage and Lost Knowledge of the Marsh Arabs.” Arab News, May 21, 2021. https://www.arabnews.com/node/1862251/lifestyle .
  31. ↑ Lewis, Philip, Ali Nasser Al-Muthanna, Preeti Patel, and Baroness Nicholson of Winterbourne. “Effect of Armed Conflict on Health of Marsh Arabs in Southern Iraq.” The Lancet 381, no. 9870 (March 16, 2013): 959–61. doi : 10.1016/s0140-6736(13)60282-2.
  32. 1 2 “Ma’Dan (Marsh Arabs).” Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life: Asia & Oceania, L-Z, 2017.
  33. ↑ Newman, Susan Dunreath. “The Plight of the Marsh Arabs, an Environmental and Human Rights Crisis.” Advances in Nursing Science 30, no. 4 (December 2007): 315–316. doi : 10.1097/01.ans.0000300181.71724.c7.
  34. 1 2 3 4 Bruneau, Charlotte; Al-sudani, Thaier (2021-10-14). "'Our whole life depends on water': Climate change, pollution and dams threaten Iraq's Marsh Arabs". Reuters. Retrieved 2023-07-19.
  35. 1 2 Martin Fletcher. “Paradise Lost: Iraqi Marsh Arabs Have Fished, Hunted, Worked and Feuded in Their Reed-Flled Watery World for 5,000 Years. But Saddam Hussein, Modernity and Now Isil Have Dealt Their Traditions a Deadly Blow. Martin Fletcher Reports.” Telegraph Magazine, 2016, 32–.
  36. ↑ Brown, Robert W. (2006). "Ancient Civilizations to 300 BC Introduction: The Invention and Diffusion of Civilization". University of North Carolina. Archived from the original on 26 July 2012. Retrieved 7 August 2010.
  37. ↑ "Iraq and Kuwait 1972, 1990, 1991, 1997". NASA. Archived from the original on 28 October 2002. Retrieved 7 August 2010.
  38. ↑ "Water Resources and Public Works Sector". Joint Contracting Command Iraq-Afghanistan. Archived from the original on 14 July 2010. Retrieved 14 August 2010.
  39. ↑ "Water returns to Iraqi marshlands". BBC News. 24 August 2005. Retrieved 7 August 2010.
  40. ↑ "UNEP project to help manage and restore the Iraqi Marshlands". Iraqi Marshlands Observation System (IMOS). United Nations Environment Programme. Archived from the original on 8 September 2010. Retrieved 7 August 2010.
  41. ↑ "January 30th, 2009 Report to Congress" (PDF). Special Inspector General for Iraq Reconstruction. January 2009. p. 65. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 July 2011. Retrieved 14 August 2010.
  42. ↑ "In Iraq's iconic marshlands, a quest for endangered otters". AP News. 2021-05-28. Retrieved 2023-07-19.
  43. ↑ Schwartzstein, Peter (2017-01-18). "Iraq's Marsh Arabs test the waters as wetlands ruined by Saddam are reborn". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077 . Retrieved 2023-07-19.
  44. ↑ Patrick (2022-01-28). "Water justice in Iraq in the aftermath of war". Policy Forum. Retrieved 2023-07-19.
  45. ↑ "Iraq's Famed Marshes Are Disappearing—Again". National Geographic. July 9, 2015. Archived from the original on July 11, 2015. Retrieved 9 October 2017.
  46. ↑ Lewis, Philip, Ali Nasser Al-Muthanna, Preeti Patel, and Baroness Nicholson of Winterbourne. “Effect of Armed Conflict on Health of Marsh Arabs in Southern Iraq.” The Lancet 381, no. 9870 (March 16, 2013): 959–60. doi : 10.1016/s0140-6736(13)60282-2.
  47. ↑ Al‐mudaffar Fawzi, Nadia, Kelly P. Goodwin, Bayan A. Mahdi, and Michelle L. Stevens. “Effects of Mesopotamian Marsh (Iraq) Desiccation on the Cultural Knowledge and Livelihood of Marsh Arab Women.” Ecosystem Health and Sustainability 2, no. 3 (January 2016): 4, 12. doi : 10.1002/ehs2.1207.

31°00′N47°00′E / 31.000°N 47.000°E / 31.000; 47.000

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.