The history of Mesopotamia extends from the Lower Paleolithic period until the establishment of the Caliphate in the late 7th century AD, after which the region came to be known as Iraq. This list covers dynasties and monarchs of Mesopotamia up until the fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BC, after which native Mesopotamian monarchs never again ruled the region.
The earliest records of writing are known from the Uruk period (or "Protoliterate period") in the 4th millennium BC, with documentation of actual historical events, and the ancient history of the region, being known from the middle of the third millennium BC onwards, alongside cuneiform records written by early kings. This period, known as the Early Dynastic Period, is typically subdivided into three: 2900–2750 BC (ED I), 2750–2600 BC (ED II) and 2600–2350 BC (ED III), [1] and was followed by Akkadian (~2350–2100 BC) and Neo-Sumerian (2112–2004 BC) periods, after which Mesopotamia was most often divided between Assyria in the north and Babylonia in the south. In 609 BC, after about a century of the kings of the Neo-Assyrian Empire ruling both Assyria and Babylonia, the Neo-Babylonian Empire destroyed Assyria and became the sole power in Mesopotamia. The conquest of Babylon by the Achaemenid Empire in 539 BC initiated centuries of Iranian rule (under the Achaemenid, Parthian and Sasanian empires), which was only briefly interrupted by the Hellenistic Argeads and Seleucids (331–141 BC) and the Roman Empire (AD 116–117).
This list follows the middle chronology, the most widely used chronology of Mesopotamian history.
Before the rise of the Akkadian Empire in the 24th century BC, Mesopotamia was fragmented into a number of city states. Whereas some surviving Mesopotamian documents, such as the Sumerian King List , describe this period as one where there was only one legitimate king at any one given time, and kingship was transferred from city to city sequentially, the historical reality was that there were often many political leaders at any one given time. [2] The Sumerian King List is generally not regarded as historically reliable given the exaggerated reign lengths (some rulers are described as ruling for hundreds or even thousands of years) and the fact that out of the massive amount of pre-Akkadian rulers listed in the SKL, very few are actually attested in surviving evidence from the Early Dynastic period. [3] It is considered most appropriate by modern scholars to rely solely on actual Early Dynastic sources for reconstructing historical events during the Early Dynastic period. [4] As such, the table below only lists rulers whose existence is attested by other more contemporary sources.
Century | Kish | Uruk | Ur | Lagash | Umma | Adab |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
c. 2600s BC | Enmebaragesi [5] Aga of Kish | Gilgamesh [3] [5] | A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug [6] Akalamdug [6] Mesannepada [3] A'annepada [6] Meskiagnun [3] Elulu [3] | |||
c. 2500s BC | En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur-Nanshe [6] Akurgal [6] | Pabilgagaltuku Ush | ||||
c. 2400s BC | Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi | Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi | Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi | Eannatum [6] Enannatum I [6] Entemena [6] Enannatum II [6] Enentarzi [6] | Enakalle Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu Edin Meanedu Ushurdu | Lugal-Anne-Mundu Mug-si E-iginimpa'e |
c. 2300s BC | Lugal-zage-si [3] | Enshakushanna Lugal-zage-si [3] | Lugalanda [6] Urukagina Lugal-zage-si [3] | Lugalanda [6] Urukagina Lugal-zage-si [3] | Ukush Lugal-zage-si [3] | Meskigal Lugal-zage-si [3] |
Akkad | Gutium | Lagash | Uruk / Ur | ||||||||
Name | Reign | Ref | Name | Reign | Ref | Name | Reign | Ref | Name | Reign | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sargonic dynasty | |||||||||||
Sargon | c. 2334–2279 BC | [7] | |||||||||
Rimush | c. 2278–2270 BC | [7] | |||||||||
Manishtushu | c. 2269–2255 BC | [7] | Second dynasty of Lagash | ||||||||
Naram-Sin | c. 2254–2218 BC | [7] | Gutian dynasty | Lugal-ushumgal | c. 2230–2210 BC | ||||||
Shar-Kali-Sharri | c. 2217–2193 BC | [7] | Erridupizir | c. 2220–2202 BC | Puzer-Mama | around 2210 BC | Fourth dynasty of Uruk | ||||
Imta | c. 2202–2199 BC | Ur-Ningirsu I | around 2200 BC | Ur-nigin | around 2200 BC | ||||||
Pirig-me | around 2200 BC | Ur-gigir | around 2200 BC | ||||||||
Inkishush | c. 2199–2195 BC | ||||||||||
Igigi (non-dynastic) | c. 2193 BC | [7] | Sarlagab | c. 2195–2192 BC | Kuda | uncertain | |||||
Imi (non-dynastic) | c. 2192 BC | [7] | Shulme | c. 2192–2186 BC | Lu-Baba | uncertain | Puzur-ili | uncertain | |||
Nanum (non-dynastic) | c. 2191 BC | [7] | |||||||||
Ilulu (non-dynastic) | c. 2190 BC | [7] | Lugula | uncertain | Ur-Utu | uncertain | |||||
Dudu | c. 2189–2169 BC | [7] | Elulmesh | c. 2186–2180 BC | |||||||
Inimabakesh | c. 2180–2175 BC | ||||||||||
Igeshaush | c. 2175–2169 BC | Kaku | uncertain | ||||||||
Shu-turul | c. 2168–2154 BC | [7] | Yarlagab | c. 2169–2154 BC | |||||||
Akkad defeated by the Gutians | |||||||||||
Ibate | c. 2154–2151 BC | Ur-Baba | c. 2157–2144 BC | ||||||||
Yarla | c. 2151–2148 BC | ||||||||||
Kurum | c. 2148–2147 BC | ||||||||||
Apilkin | c. 2147–2144 BC | ||||||||||
La-erabum | c. 2144–2142 BC | Gudea | c. 2144–2124 BC | ||||||||
Irarum | c. 2142–2140 BC | ||||||||||
Ibranum | c. 2140–2139 BC | ||||||||||
Hablum | c. 2139–2137 BC | ||||||||||
Puzur-Suen | c. 2137–2130 BC | ||||||||||
Yarlaganda | c. 2130–2123 BC | ||||||||||
Si'um | c. 2123–2116 BC | Ur-Ningirsu II | c. 2124–2119 BC | Fifth dynasty of Uruk | |||||||
Tirigan | c. 2116 BC | Ur-gar | c. 2117–2113 BC | Utu-hengal | c. 2119–2113 BC | ||||||
Gutians defeated by Utu-Hengal of Uruk | Third dynasty of Ur | ||||||||||
Nam-mahani | c. 2113–2110 BC | Ur-Nammu | c. 2112–2095 BC | [8] | |||||||
Lagash defeated by Ur-Nammu of Ur | Shulgi | c. 2094–2047 BC | [8] | ||||||||
Amar-Sin | c. 2046–2038 BC | [8] | |||||||||
Shu-Sin | c. 2037–2029 BC | [8] | |||||||||
Ibbi-Sin | c. 2028–2004 BC | [8] |
Southern Mesopotamia | Northern Mesopotamia | ||||||||||||||||
Isin | Larsa | Babylon | Uruk | Eshnunna | Assyria | ||||||||||||
Name | Reign | Ref | Name | Reign | Ref | Name | Reign | Ref | Name | Reign | Ref | Name | Reign | Ref | Name | Reign | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
First dynasty of Isin | Dynasty of Larsa | Dynasty of Eshnunna | Puzur-Ashur dynasty | ||||||||||||||
Ishbi-Erra | c. 2017–1985 BC | [8] | Naplanum | c. 2025–2005 BC | [8] | Ituria | uncertain | [9] | Puzur-Ashur I [lower-alpha 1] | uncertain | [10] | ||||||
Emisum | c. 2004–1977 BC | [8] | Ilushuilia | uncertain | [9] | Shalim-ahum | uncertain | [10] | |||||||||
Shu-Ilishu | c. 1984–1975 BC | [8] | Nurakhum | uncertain | [9] | Ilu-shuma | uncertain | [10] | |||||||||
Iddin-Dagan | c. 1974–1954 BC | [8] | Samium | c. 1976–1942 BC | [8] | Kirikiri | uncertain | [9] | Erishum I | c. 1974–1935 BC | [10] | ||||||
Ishme-Dagan | c. 1953–1935 BC | [8] | Zabaia | c. 1941–1933 BC | [8] | Bilalama | uncertain | [9] | |||||||||
Lipit-Eshtar | c. 1934–1924 BC | [8] | Gungunum | c. 1932–1906 BC | [8] | Azuzum | uncertain | [9] | Ikunum | c. 1934–1921 BC | [10] | ||||||
Ur-Ninurta | c. 1923–1896 BC | [8] | Abisare | c. 1905–1895 BC | [8] | Amorite dynasty (Dynasty I) | Ipiq-Adad I | uncertain | [9] | Sargon I | c. 1920–1881 BC | [10] | |||||
Bur-Suen | c. 1895–1874 BC | [8] | Sumuel | c. 1894–1866 BC | [8] | Sumu-abum | c. 1894–1881 BC | [11] | Shiqlanum | uncertain | [9] | ||||||
Lipit-Enlil | c. 1873–1869 BC | [8] | Abdi-Erah | uncertain | [9] | Puzur-Ashur II | c. 1880–1873 BC | [10] | |||||||||
Erra-imitti | c. 1868–1861 BC | [8] | Nur-Adad | c. 1865–1850 BC | [8] | Sumu-la-El | c. 1880–1845 BC | [11] | Sixth dynasty of Uruk | Belakum | uncertain | [9] | |||||
Enlil-bani | c. 1860–1837 BC | [8] | Sin-Iddinam | c. 1849–1843 BC | [8] | Sin-kashid | uncertain | [12] | Warassa | uncertain | [9] | Naram-Sin | c. 1872–1829 BC | [10] | |||
Zambiya | c. 1836–1834 BC | [8] | Sin-Eribam | c. 1842–1841 BC | [8] | Sabium | c. 1844–1831 BC | [11] | Sin-eribam | uncertain | [12] | Ibal-pi-El I | uncertain | [9] | |||
Iter-pisha | c. 1833–1831 BC | [8] | Sin-Iqisham | c. 1840–1836 BC | [8] | Sin-gamil | uncertain | [12] | Ipiq-Adad II | uncertain | [9] | ||||||
Silli-Adad | c. 1835 BC | [8] | Anam | uncertain | [12] | Naram-Sin | uncertain | [9] | |||||||||
Ur-du-kuga | c. 1830–1828 BC | [8] | Warad-Sin | c. 1834–1823 BC | [13] | Irdanene | uncertain | [12] | Dadusha | uncertain | [9] | ||||||
Suen-magir | c. 1827–1817 BC | [8] | Rim-Sin I [lower-alpha 2] | c. 1822–1763 BC | [13] | Apil-Sin | c. 1830–1813 BC | [11] | Rim-Anum | uncertain | [12] | Ibal-pi-El II | c. 1762 BC | [9] | Erishum II | c. 1828–1809 BC | [10] |
Shamshi-Adad dynasty | |||||||||||||||||
Damiq-ilishu | c. 1816–1794 BC | [8] | Sin-Muballit | c. 1812–1793 BC | [11] | Nabi-ilishu | c. 1802 BC | [12] | Shamshi-Adad I | c. 1808–1776 BC | [10] | ||||||
Isin defeated by Rim-Sin I of Larsa | |||||||||||||||||
Hammurabi | c. 1792–1750 BC | [11] | Uruk defeated by Hammurabi of Babylon | Eshnunna defeated by Siwepalarhuhpak of Elam | Ishme-Dagan I | c. 1775–1735 BC | [10] | ||||||||||
Larsa defeated by Hammurabi of Babylon |
Southern Mesopotamia (Babylonia) | Northern Mesopotamia | ||||||||||
Babylon | Kassites | Sealand | Assyria | ||||||||
Name | Reign | Ref | Name | Reign | Ref | Name | Reign | Ref | Name | Reign | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Amorite dynasty (Dynasty I; continued) | Kassite dynasty (Dynasty III) | First Sealand dynasty (Dynasty II) | Shamshi-Adad dynasty (continued) | ||||||||
Samsu-iluna | c. 1749–1712 BC | [11] | Gandash | c. 1729–1704 BC | [14] | Ilum-ma-ili | c. 1725–? BC | [15] | Mut-Ashkur | uncertain | [16] |
Rimush | uncertain | [16] | |||||||||
Abi-Eshuh | c. 1711–1684 BC | [11] | Agum I | c. 1703–1682 BC | [14] | Itti-ili-nibi | uncertain | [15] | Asinum | uncertain | [16] |
Seven usurpers | |||||||||||
Ashur-dugul | uncertain | [16] | |||||||||
Ashur-apla-idi | [16] | ||||||||||
Nasir-Sin | [16] | ||||||||||
Sin-namir | [16] | ||||||||||
Ipqi-Ishtar | [16] | ||||||||||
Adad-salulu | [16] | ||||||||||
Adasi | [16] | ||||||||||
Adaside dynasty | |||||||||||
Damqi-ilishu | uncertain | [15] | Bel-bani | c. 1700–1691 BC | [16] | ||||||
Kashtiliash I | c. 1681–1660 BC | [14] | Libaya | c. 1691–1674 BC | [16] | ||||||
Ammi-Ditana | c. 1683–1647 BC | [11] | Abi-Rattash | uncertain | [17] | Ishkibal | uncertain | [15] | Sharma-Adad I | c. 1673–1662 BC | [16] |
Iptar-Sin | c. 1661–1650 BC | [16] | |||||||||
Ammi-Saduqa | c. 1646–1626 BC | [11] | Shushushi | uncertain | [15] | Bazaya | c. 1649–1622 BC | [16] | |||
Samsu-Ditana | c. 1625–1595 BC | [11] | Kashtiliash II | uncertain | [17] | Gulkishar | uncertain | [15] | Lullaya | c. 1621–1616 BC | [16] |
Shu-Ninua | c. 1615–1602 BC | [16] | |||||||||
Sharma-Adad II | c. 1601–1598 BC | [16] | |||||||||
Babylon destroyed by the Hittites | Urzigurumash | uncertain | [17] | Peshgaldaramesh | c. 1599–1549 BC | [15] | Erishum III | c. 1598–1586 BC | [16] | ||
Agum II | uncertain | [17] | Shamshi-Adad II | c. 1585–1580 BC | [16] | ||||||
Harba-Shipak | uncertain | [17] | Ishme-Dagan II | c. 1580–1564 BC | [16] | ||||||
Kassite dynasty (Dynasty III) | Shipta'ulzi | uncertain | [17] | Shamshi-Adad III | c. 1564–1548 BC | [16] | |||||
Burnaburiash I [lower-alpha 3] | c. 1530–1500 BC | [18] | Burnaburiash I | c. 1530–1500 BC | [18] | Ayadaragalama | c. 1548–1520 BC | [15] | Ashur-nirari I | c. 1548–1522 BC | [16] |
Akurduana | c. 1519–1493 BC | [15] | Puzur-Ashur III | c. 1522–1498 BC | [16] | ||||||
Ulamburiash | around 1475 BC | [17] | Ulamburiash | around 1475 BC | [17] | Melamkurkurra | c. 1492–1485 BC | [15] | Enlil-nasir I | c. 1498–1485 BC | [16] |
Ea-gamil | c. 1484–1475 BC | [15] | Nur-ili | c. 1485–1473 BC | [16] |
Assyria was a major ancient Mesopotamian civilization which existed as a city-state from the 21st century BC to the 14th century BC, then to a territorial state, and eventually an empire from the 14th century BC to the 7th century BC.
Chaldea was a small country that existed between the late 10th or early 9th and mid-6th centuries BC, after which the country and its people were absorbed and assimilated into the indigenous population of Babylonia. Semitic-speaking, it was located in the marshy land of the far southeastern corner of Mesopotamia and briefly came to rule Babylon. The Hebrew Bible uses the term כשדים (Kaśdim) and this is translated as Chaldaeans in the Greek Old Testament, although there is some dispute as to whether Kasdim in fact means Chaldean or refers to the south Mesopotamian Kaldu.
Babylonia was an ancient Akkadian-speaking state and cultural area based in the city of Babylon in central-southern Mesopotamia. It emerged as an Akkadian populated but Amorite-ruled state c. 1894 BC. During the reign of Hammurabi and afterwards, Babylonia was retrospectively called "the country of Akkad", a deliberate archaism in reference to the previous glory of the Akkadian Empire. It was often involved in rivalry with the older ethno-linguistically related state of Assyria in the north of Mesopotamia and Elam to the east in Ancient Iran. Babylonia briefly became the major power in the region after Hammurabi created a short-lived empire, succeeding the earlier Akkadian Empire, Third Dynasty of Ur, and Old Assyrian Empire. The Babylonian Empire rapidly fell apart after the death of Hammurabi and reverted to a small kingdom centered around the city of Babylon.
The Kassites were people of the ancient Near East, who controlled Babylonia after the fall of the Old Babylonian Empire c. 1531 BC and until c. 1155 BC.
Nabopolassar was the founder and first king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, ruling from his coronation as king of Babylon in 626 BC to his death in 605 BC. Though initially only aimed at restoring and securing the independence of Babylonia, Nabopolassar's uprising against the Neo-Assyrian Empire, which had ruled Babylonia for more than a century, eventually led to the complete destruction of the Assyrian Empire and the rise of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in its place.
Nabonidus was the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, ruling from 556 BC to the fall of Babylon to the Achaemenian Empire under Cyrus the Great in 539 BC. Nabonidus was the last native ruler of ancient Mesopotamia, the end of his reign marking the end of thousands of years of Sumero-Akkadian states, kingdoms and empires. He was also the last independent king of Babylon. Regarded as one of the most vibrant and individualistic rulers of his time, Nabonidus is characterised by some scholars as an unorthodox religious reformer and as the first archaeologist.
Sîn-šumu-līšir or Sîn-šumu-lēšir, also spelled Sin-shum-lishir, was a usurper king in the Neo-Assyrian Empire, ruling some cities in northern Babylonia for three months in 626 BC during a revolt against the rule of the king Sîn-šar-iškun. He was the only eunuch to ever claim the throne of Assyria.
The Neo-Babylonian Empire or Second Babylonian Empire, historically known as the Chaldean Empire, was the last polity ruled by monarchs native to Mesopotamia. Beginning with the coronation of Nabopolassar as the King of Babylon in 626 BC and being firmly established through the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 612 BC, the Neo-Babylonian Empire was conquered by the Achaemenid Persian Empire in 539 BC, marking the collapse of the Chaldean dynasty less than a century after its founding.
The history of Mesopotamia ranges from the earliest human occupation in the Paleolithic period up to Late antiquity. This history is pieced together from evidence retrieved from archaeological excavations and, after the introduction of writing in the late 4th millennium BC, an increasing amount of historical sources. While in the Paleolithic and early Neolithic periods only parts of Upper Mesopotamia were occupied, the southern alluvium was settled during the late Neolithic period. Mesopotamia has been home to many of the oldest major civilizations, entering history from the Early Bronze Age, for which reason it is often called a cradle of civilization.
The history of the Assyrians encompasses nearly five millennia, covering the history of the ancient Mesopotamian civilization of Assyria, including its territory, culture and people, as well as the later history of the Assyrian people after the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 609 BC. For purposes of historiography, ancient Assyrian history is often divided by modern researchers, based on political events and gradual changes in language, into the Early Assyrian, Old Assyrian, Middle Assyrian, Neo-Assyrian and post-imperial periods., Sassanid era Asoristan from 240 AD until 637 AD and the post Islamic Conquest period until the present day.
The Neo-Assyrian Empire was the fourth and penultimate stage of ancient Assyrian history. Beginning with the accession of Adad-nirari II in 911 BC, the Neo-Assyrian Empire grew to dominate the ancient Near East throughout much of the 8th and 7th centuries BC, becoming the largest empire in history up to that point. Because of its geopolitical dominance and ideology based in world domination, the Neo-Assyrian Empire is by many researchers regarded to have been the first world empire in history. It influenced other empires of the ancient world culturally, governmentally, and militarily, including the Babylonians, the Achaemenids, and the Seleucids. At its height, the empire was the strongest military power in the world and ruled over all of Mesopotamia, the Levant and Egypt, as well as parts of Anatolia, Arabia and modern-day Iran and Armenia.
Sargon of Akkad, also known as Sargon the Great, was the first ruler of the Akkadian Empire, known for his conquests of the Sumerian city-states in the 24th to 23rd centuries BC. He is sometimes identified as the first person in recorded history to rule over an empire.
The timeline of ancient Assyria can be broken down into three main eras: the Old Assyrian period, Middle Assyrian Empire, and Neo-Assyrian Empire. Modern scholars typically also recognize an Early period preceding the Old Assyrian period and a post-imperial period succeeding the Neo-Assyrian period.
The Early Assyrian period was the earliest stage of Assyrian history, preceding the Old Assyrian period and covering the history of the city of Assur, and its people and culture, prior to the foundation of Assyria as an independent city-state under Puzur-Ashur I c. 2025 BC. Very little material and textual evidence survives from this period. The earliest archaeological evidence at Assur dates to the Early Dynastic Period, c. 2600 BC, but the city may have been founded even earlier since the area had been inhabited for thousands of years prior and other nearby cities, such as Nineveh, are significantly older.
King of the Four Corners of the World, alternatively translated as King of the Four Quarters of the World, King of the Heaven's Four Corners or King of the Four Corners of the Universe and often shortened to simply King of the Four Corners, was a title of great prestige claimed by powerful monarchs in ancient Mesopotamia. Though the term "four corners of the world" does refer to specific geographical places within and near Mesopotamia itself, these places were thought to represent locations near the actual edges of the world and as such, the title should be interpreted as something equivalent to "King of all the known world", a claim to universal rule over the entire world and everything within it.
King of the Universe, also interpreted as King of Everything, King of the Totality, King of All or King of the World, was a title of great prestige claiming world domination used by powerful monarchs in ancient Mesopotamia. The title is sometimes applied to God in the Judeo-Christian and Abrahamic tradition.
King of Sumer and Akkad was a royal title in Ancient Mesopotamia combining the titles of "King of Akkad", the ruling title held by the monarchs of the Akkadian Empire with the title of "King of Sumer". The title simultaneously laid a claim on the legacy and glory of the ancient empire that had been founded by Sargon of Akkad and expressed a claim to rule the entirety of lower Mesopotamia. Despite both of the titles "King of Sumer" and "King of Akkad" having been used by the Akkadian kings, the title was not introduced in its combined form until the reign of the Neo-Sumerian king Ur-Nammu, who created it in an effort to unify the southern and northern parts of lower Mesopotamia under his rule. The older Akkadian kings themselves might have been against linking Sumer and Akkad in such a way.
Akkadian or Mesopotamian royal titulary refers to the royal titles and epithets assumed by monarchs in Ancient Mesopotamia from the Akkadian period to the fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, with some scant usage in the later Achaemenid and Seleucid periods. The titles and the order they were presented in varied from king to king, with similarities between kings usually being because of a king's explicit choice to align himself with a predecessor. Some titles, like the Akkadian šar kibrāt erbetti and šar kiššatim and the Neo-Sumerian šar māt Šumeri u Akkadi would remain in use for more than a thousand years through several different empires and others were only used by a single king.