Gerzeh culture

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Gerzeh culture / Naqada II
(3500—3325 BC)
Ivory human figures. Top, Matmar grave 2682, Naqada graves 1329 and T24. Bottom, Naqada graves 268 and 1561. Early Naqada II period. Ashmolean Museum.jpg
Late Naqada I-Early Naqada II ivory figurines. Ashmolean Museum
Gerzeh culture/ Naqada II
Datesc. 3,500 BC — c. 3,325 BC [1] [2]
Major sitesel-Girzeh, Naqada, Abydos, Gebelein, Hierakonpolis
Preceded by Naqada I (Amratian)
Followed by Naqada III (Semainian)

The Gerzeh culture, also called Naqada II, refers to the archaeological stage at Gerzeh (also Girza or Jirzah), a prehistoric Egyptian cemetery located along the west bank of the Nile. The necropolis is named after el-Girzeh, the nearby contemporary town in Egypt. [3] Gerzeh is situated only several miles due east of the oasis of Faiyum. [4] Depending on the sources, it is dated from c. 3,500 BC to c. 3,325 BC, [1] from c. 3,650 BC to c. 3,300 BC, [5] [2] or from 3,500 to 3,200 BC. [6] Naqada II had many types of potteries, which were categorized chronologically by Petrie from SD ("Sequence Date") 38 to 63. [7] It is coeval with the Uruk period in Mesopotamia.

Contents

The Gerzeh culture is a material culture identified by archaeologists. It is the second of three phases of the prehistoric Naqada cultures and so is also known as Naqada II. The Gerzeh culture was preceded by the Amratian culture ("Naqada I") and followed by the Naqada III ("protodynastic" or "Semainian culture").

The end of the period, namely Naqada IID, is thought to correspond to the origins of Dynastic Egypt, a process which was further strengthened during the periods of Naqada IIIa and Dynasty 0. [8] Naqada IID saw the inception of kingship, writing, and organized religion, which would become the basis of the classical Egyptian civilization. [9]

Historical context

Sources differ on dating, some saying use of the culture distinguishes itself from the Amratian and begins circa 3500 BC lasting through circa 3200 BC. [10] Accordingly, some authorities place the onset of the Gerzeh coincident with the Amratian or Badari cultures, i.e. c.3800 BC to 3650 BC, even though some Badarian artifacts, in fact, may date earlier. Nevertheless, because the Naqada sites were first divided by the British Egyptologist Flinders Petrie in 1894, into Amratian (after the cemetery near el-Amrah) and "Gerzean" (after the cemetery near Gerzeh) sub-periods, the original convention is used in this text.

The Gerzeh culture lasted through a period of time when the desertification of the Sahara had nearly reached its state seen during the late twentieth century.

The primary distinguishing feature between the earlier Amratian and the Gerzeh is the extra decorative effort exhibited in the pottery of the period. Artwork on Gerzeh ceramics features stylised animals and environment to a greater degree than the earlier Amratian artwork. Further, images of ostriches on the pottery artwork possibly indicate an inclination these early peoples may have felt to explore the Sahara desert.

Economy: the "City of Gold'

Gold mining sites (*) in Pre- and Early Dynastic Egypt. Gold mining sites in Pre- and Early Dynastic Egypt.png
Gold mining sites (●) in Pre- and Early Dynastic Egypt.

"Naqada" (Nubt) literally means "City of Gold", reflecting the exceptional wealth of the eastern desert region in gold, and the strategic position of Naqada and its facing town of Koptos for the commerce of that gold. [12] [13]

The exploitation of precious metals from the Eastern Desert, and the development of floodplain agriculture creating surpluses which could generate demand for a variety of crafts, made the region especially advanced in term of economic specialization and diversification, much more advanced than the regions of contemporary Lower Egypt. [14]

Flint knife with gold handle, Naqada II, c.3500 BC. Cairo Museum. Flint knife with a fish-tail shaped blade and gold handle, Naqada II, Cairo Museum (handle detail).jpg
Flint knife with gold handle, Naqada II, c.3500 BC. Cairo Museum.

Gold production is documented through the creation of gold artifacts, going as far back as about 3500 BCE. [16] Gold was obtained mainly from the older and younger granites of the Eastern Desert, through open pits and moderate underground digging. [16]

Imports from Mesopotamia appear to have been quite intensive during the late Gerzean period (late Naqada II), and correspond to the Protoliterate b and c cultures of Mesopotamia (Uruk period). [17] Mesopotamians may have been attracted by the fact that Naqada was at the center of the developing trade of gold from the Eastern Desert of Egypt. [17] This may have stimulated the direct involvement of Mesopotamian adventurers and traders, who, accompanied by artists and various skilled personnel, may have introduced Mesopotamian styles and practices. [18] The fact that Mesopotamian influence, and possibly influence from Susa, mainly appears in Upper Egypt, and is almost non-existent in Lower Egypt, suggests an independent series of direct contacts, probably through the Red Sea at a point facing Wadi Hammamat, using some of the large ships visible on Mesopotamian seals. [17]

The exploitation of gold may also have stimulated the development of the first organized proto-state structures in Egypt. [18]

Northern and southern expansion

The people of Naqada II and Naqada III seem to have expanded northward into Lower Egypt, replacing the Maadian culture. [19] Maadi was first conquered during Nadaqa II c-d. [19] The cultures of Lower Egypt were replaced by Upper Egypt and Naqada culture by the end of Naqada II circa 3200 BCE. [19] The Maadian culture of Buto, Tell Ibrahim Awad, Tell el-Rub'a, and Tell el-Farkha were vacated, giving way to the Naqada III culture. [19]

From its core in Upper Egypt, the Naqada II expanded northward to the eastern edge of the Nile Delta, and southward to the Nubian A-Group culture. [20]

Naqada IIA and IIB (c.3500 BC)

A Naqada IIB burial assemblage (Naqada Tomb T4). Ashmolean Museum Naqada IIB burial at Naqada Tomb T4.jpg
A Naqada IIB burial assemblage (Naqada Tomb T4). Ashmolean Museum

The period of Naqada IIA and Naqada IIB see the appearance of early forms of artifacts that would become characteristic of the later Naqada period: ivory tusks and tags with designs of bearded men start to appear, as well as simple designs of cosmetic palettes in the shape of rhomboids or animals. [21]

In the area of pottery, black-topped red pottery continued to be produced, while white cross-lined pottery ("C-ware") started to disappear, before vanishing completely and being replaced by decorative "D" ware from the Naqada IIC period. [22] [23] Rough pottery (type "R") also started to appear during this period. [23]

Known Naqada IIA and IIB cemeteries occupy a rather limited geographical area and are essentially located in the area around Naqada, including the cemeteries of Matmar, Salmany, Naqada and Armant. [24]

Trading relations between Upper Egypt and south-western Asia may have started during this time, centered around the mineral wealth of the eastern desert, particularly gold. [25] Traders may have arrived through the Red Sea or through the Nile Delta, which they seem to have bypassed for lack of local precious resources. [25] Such trade may have stimulated urban and state development in Upper Egypt. [25]

Bearded tusk statuettes

Hippopotamus tusk with carved head of a bearded man with torus-like headgear, Late Naqada I - Early Naqada II, 3800-3400 BC. Brooklyn Museum. Hippopotamus Tusk with Carved Head Naqada I-II (detail).jpg
Hippopotamus tusk with carved head of a bearded man with torus-like headgear, Late Naqada I – Early Naqada II, 3800–3400 BC. Brooklyn Museum.

Many figurines are known which have pointed beards, with often some traces of hair, and sometimes tall hats. [29] They are carved on hippopotamus tusks or ivory tags. [29] Datation is uncertain, but the earliest ones are securely dated from the end of Naqada I, and they continue into Naqada II, but none of these anthropomorphic tusks are attested in the Late Pre-Dynastic, i.e. Naqada III. [28] Anthropomorphic tusks are only found in Upper Egypt, most of the time in tombs and rarely in settlements, and most of them before Naqada IID. [30] Petrie dated these bearded statuettes to SD 38, the earliest stage of Naqada II. [31]

The figures seem to be wearing clothing, and may represent people dressed in long cloaks. [29] Bearded men also appear in many other pre-dynastic artifacts, such as the Gebel el-Arak Knife. [28] The headgear of the Mesopotamian-style "Lord of Animals" on the Gebel el-Arak knife may also be comparable to the torus-shaped headgear visible on many of the Naqada I figurines. [28]

Tusks with human heads are of two types, depending on their sizes: smaller ones, made from the canine teeth of the hippopotamus, and larger ones, made from the lower incisors. [32] Most have a knob-like headdress, which is often pierced. [32] The authenticity of these bearded tusk statuettes is generally considered beyond doubt. [32] Two datable pieces from Badari are attributed to Naqada I-IIA. [32] [33]

Many anthropomorphic ivory tags showing bearded individuals have also been were found in Naqada graves dated to the Naqada IC-IIA period, with only a few specimens in Naqada IIB. These have been found in the same graves as anthropomorphic tusk and simple animal ivory tags, indicating contemporaneity between these objects. [34]

Vessels

A multicolor stone vessel: red and white limestone jar. Naqada Tomb T4. Naqada IIB. Content of Naqada Tomb T4. Red and white limestone jar.jpg
A multicolor stone vessel: red and white limestone jar. Naqada Tomb T4. Naqada IIB.

Naqada II continued to use large quantities of Black-top redware, especially present in the burials of Naqada IIA and IIB, such as Abadiya grave B101 or B102. One of the originalities of the period is that figures in relief started to be incorporated into Black-top redware. A remarkable fragment from this period appears to have the motif of the Red Crown, of which it is considered as the first known depiction. [39] [40] [41] The symbol of the Red Crown has been known historically as the regnal symbol of Lower Egypt, but it seems that it originated in Upper Egypt, where it was the crown worn by the rulers of Naqada. [42]

Other wares were used in lesser quantities, such as Rough ware (type "R") a new type of pottery with vegetal particles which burn upon firing and create an uneven surface, or Polished Red ware.

Some beautiful and precious stone vessels were also manufactured, such as the red and white limestone vessels of Naqada Tomb T4 (Naqada IIB). [43]

Female statuettes

Female statuette, El Ma'mariya. Naqada IIA, 3500-3400 BC. Brooklyn Museum. WLA brooklynmuseum Terracotta female figure.jpg
Female statuette, El Ma’marîya. Naqada IIA, 3500-3400 BC. Brooklyn Museum.

Various female statuettes start to appear during this period. During Naqada IIA. [47] Especially remarkable are the dancing Venuses holding their arms rounded above their heads in a seemingly dancing pause, or a pose of praise. [47] Such statuettes may be wearing a fine skirt, signified by the joint legs design and the whitish coloration. [47]

These female figures may be simply dancing. [48] Alternative the raised arms may imitate the horns of a cow, and the figures may be depictions of a deity, such as Hathor. [47] [48]

The theme of the woman with raised arms had a great longevity, and can be seen extensively in Naqada IIC Decorated pottery, or in the wall painting of Tomb 100 at Hierakonpolis. [48]

Other artifacts

Naqada IIC (c.3400 BC)

Territorial expansion

Naqada IIC is marked by a significant geographical expansion from the core area around Naqada. Naqada IIC cemeteries are known from the central areas of Naqada IIA and IIB (Matmar, Salmany, Naqada and Armant), but also from Badari, Hammamiya, Naqa ed-Deir and the Hierakonpolis Fort Cemetery, and north into the Fayum (Gerza, Haraga, and Abusir el-Meleq, all traditional areas of the Maadi-Buto culture), and possibly as far as the large cemetery at Minshat Abu Omar in the eastern Nile delta, fully occupied in Naqada IID. [51] In Nubia, A-Group cemeteries were also strongly influence by Egyptian style. [52]

Pottery

Naqada pottery types, as developed by Flinders Petrie Naqada pottery types according to Petrie.jpg
Naqada pottery types, as developed by Flinders Petrie

Naqada II pottery mainly uses two types of clay. First, a grey clay from the alluvium of the Nile, which is rich in ferrous oxide and becomes red to brown upon firing in an oxidizing environment. [7] Second, a clay of limestone origin or marly (a mix limestone and clay), obtained from regular rivers and wadis, which is yellowish to white due to its high content in calcium, and becomes creamy upon firing. [7]

Naqada II practiced to various extents all the types of pottery known from the Naqada period, but in addition was characterized by the development of new pottery types with wavy handles, coarse utilitarian wares, and decorated vessels (called "D-type" for "decorated") consisting in brown paint over a cream surface. [53] Naqada II had many types of potteries, which were categorized chronologically by Petrie from SD ("Sequence Date") 38 to 63: [7]

Decorated pottery ("D-Ware")

Concentration of Naqada D-ware and distribution: Low: * Medium: * High: *. Distribution of Naqada D-ware.png
Concentration of Naqada D-ware and distribution:
Low: ●
Medium: ●
High: ●.

Decorated "D" ware was essentially produced between 3,650 and 3,400 BC, during the Naqada IIC and IID periods. [22] It succeeded White cross-lined pottery ("C-ware"), which was current from 3,900 to 3,650 BC, from Naqada IA to Naqada IIA and Naqada IIB, before vanishing. [22] The new painting technique was different, since D-ware used brown painting over cream-bodied pottery, while the older C-ware used white or cream white painting over a red background. In addition to the different types of ceramic base and the different colors used for painting, the types of drawings and well as their style also differ widely between C-ware and D-ware. [22] Overall, the layout of drawings of the Naqada II D-ware was much more regular and constrained than that of C-ware, a possible consequence of increased hierarchy and control in society during the Naqada II period. [22] These vessels were found in graves, but were also used in daily life. [22]

Pictures of ceremonial reed boats appear on some of these vessels, showing male and female figures standing aboard, the boat being equipped with oars and two cabins. [55] The regular presence of ships in these paintings suggests intense activity along the Nile river. Some masculine figures also wear a tall feathered or foliage headdress. [22] Timber was necessarily for the construction of large boats capable of trading along the Nile, and such timber could only be found in the Levant, which may have been an added motivation for expansion towards the north. [56]

Mesopotamian-style pottery

Fancy (type "F") vessels, with Mesopotamian-style straight-spouted jar (Naqada IIC, right) dated circa c.3450-3325 BC. Ashmolean Museum Jars excavated in Naqada. Predynastic Period, Naqada IIC (Egypt) (c. 3450 - 3325 BCE) Ashmolean Museum AN1895.396.jpg
Fancy (type "F") vessels, with Mesopotamian-style straight-spouted jar (Naqada IIC, right) dated circa c.3450-3325 BC. Ashmolean Museum

Red-slipped spouted pottery items dating to around 3500 BCE and after (Naqada II C/D), which were probably used for pouring water, beer or wine, suggest that Egypt was in contact with and being influenced by Mesopotamia around that time. [59] This type of pottery was manufactured in Egypt, with Egyptian clay, but its shape, particularly the spout, is certainly Mesopotamian in origin. [59] Such vessels were new and rare in pre-Dynastic Egypt, but had been commonly manufactured in the Mesopotamian cities of Nippur and Uruk for centuries. [59] This indicated that Egyptians were familiar with Mesopotamian types of pottery. [59] The discovery of these vessels initially encouraged the development of the dynastic race theory, according to which Mesopotamians would have established the first Pharaonic line, but is now considered by many scholars to be simply indicative of cultural influence and borrowings circa 3500 BCE, although there is an established gene flow from Mesopotamia and West Asia into Egypt . [59]

Spouted jars of Mesopotamian design start to appear in Egypt in the Naqada II period. [60] Various Uruk pottery vases and containers have been found in Egypt in Naqada contexts, confirming that Mesopotamian finished goods were imported into Egypt, although the past contents of the jars have not been determined yet. [61] Scientific analysis of ancient wine jars in Abydos has shown there was some high-volume wine trade with the Levant and Mesopotamia during this period. [62]

Stone vessels

Luxurious stone vessels, hollowed out and shaped from blocks of semi-precious stones, were also crafted, and were often models for pottery types. [63] The technique was probably known from the time of the Badarian culture and northern Egypt seems to have played an important role in their production. [63] Stone allowed for more precision than pottery, and was the material of choice to obtain the most beautiful and the finest results. [64] Stone vessels started to evolve towards shapes inspired by the shapes of Decorated wares. [65]

Gold objects

Flint knife with a fish-tail shaped blade and gold handle, Naqada II, Cairo Museum.jpg
Three women and a fan, next to the a river. Flint knife gold handle, Naqada II, circa 3500 BCE. Cairo Museum.jpg
Flint knife gold handle, Naqada II. On the pommel, three women and a fan, next to a river. Cairo Museum. [66]

Several gold objects are known from this period, sometimes decorated with motifs also found in decorated pottery. [66] A flint knife with handle covered in gold has a one side a depiction of three women next to a river, one of them holding a fan, and on the reverse the depiction of a boat with two cabins. [66]

During Naqada II, flint remained the main material for making tools such as knives, chisels, punches or scrappers, but such decorated knives were not in daily use, and probably had a religious function. [66] The flint blade is a pseshkf, a blade shaped in the form of a fish tail, which became typical of knives used in the ceremony of the "Opening of the Mouth" in Classical times, where touching the mouth of a dead person with such a blade was supposed to make the jaw move. [66] Gold remained a scarce and precious material, and was probably only used among the elite. [66]

Oldest known Egyptian painted tomb

An ancient Nekhen tomb painting in plaster with barques, staffs, goddesses, and animals - possibly the earliest example of an Egyptian tomb mural Tumulo 100.JPG
An ancient Nekhen tomb painting in plaster with barques, staffs, goddesses, and animals – possibly the earliest example of an Egyptian tomb mural

Discoveries at Nekhen (Hierakonpolis) include Tomb 100, the oldest known tomb with a mural painted on its plaster walls. The sepulchre is thought to date to the Nagada IIC phase (c. 3400–3300 BCE), and may belong to an early king of Hierakonpolis. [67]

It is presumed that the mural shows religious scenes and images. It includes figures featured in Egyptian culture for three thousand years—a funerary procession of barques, presumably a goddess standing between two upright lionesses, a wheel of various horned quadrupeds, several examples of a staff that became associated with the deity of the earliest cattle culture and one being held up by a heavy-breasted goddess. Animals depicted include onagers or zebras, ibexes, ostriches, lionesses, impalas, gazelles, and cattle.

Several of the images in the mural resemble images seen in the Gebel el-Arak Knife: a figure between two lions, warriors, or boats, [68] [69] [70] [71] but are not stylistically similar.

Proto-hieroglyphic symbols

Designs on some of the labels or token from Cemetery U-j, Umm El Qa'ab, Abydos, carbon-dated to circa 3400-3200 BC. Design of the Abydos token glyphs dated to 3400-3200 BCE.jpg
Designs on some of the labels or token from Cemetery U-j, Umm El Qa'ab, Abydos, carbon-dated to circa 3400–3200 BC.

Some symbols on Gerzeh pottery resemble traditional Egyptian hieroglyphs, which were contemporaneous with the proto-cuneiform script of Sumer. The figurine of a woman is a distinctive design considered characteristic of the culture.

On the Koptos monumental statues of the god Min, generally dated to circa 3300 BCE during the late Naqada II- early Naqada III periods, the Min symbol, an archaic form of the classical hieroglyph, is inscribed. [73] [74]

Late Gerzean decorated pottery signs Late Gerzean. Decorated pottery signs.jpg
Late Gerzean decorated pottery signs

Final period, Naqada IID (c.3300 BC)

Enthronement scene, Hierakonpolis, likely Naqada IId (ca. 3350-3150 BCE). Staatliche Sammlung fur Agyptische Kunst. Dynastie 0 Stabaufsatz.jpg
Enthronement scene, Hierakonpolis, likely Naqada IId (ca. 3350–3150 BCE). Staatliche Sammlung für Ägyptische Kunst.

The period of Naqada IId (ca. 3350–3150 BCE) is thought to have been particularly in rich in rather revolutionary societal, artistic, and technological innovations, which culminated with the formation of Dynasty 0 (ca. 3150–3000 BCE) and the rise of the Egyptian Empire. [75] The Naqada IId period is characterized by major accomplishments in the work of ivory, with small works of extraordinary quality, ceremonial knife handles, and decorated pottery. [75] These accomplishments were accompanied by societal innovations, with the development of kingship, writing, and organized religion around clearly defined gods. [75]

Territorial expansion into northern areas was confirmed during Naqada IID, with the occupation of major cemeteries and settlements in the Nile delta (Minshat Abu Omar, Kafr Hassan Daoud) and the replacement of the Maadi-Buto culture as seen Buto. [76]

The period probably saw the development of city-states ruled by kings, such as Abydos and Hierakonpolis, resulting in conflicts in which Abydos was the final victor, thereby unifying Upper Egypt, as seen in the scenes of the Gebel el-Arak Knife , which likely depict the conflict between Abydos and Hierakonpolis. [75] King Horus of Dynasty 0, would then endeavor to conquer the region of the Nile Delta. [75]

Contacts with Western and Central Asia

Likeness of a Mesopotamian king as Master of Animals on the Gebel el-Arak Knife, dated circa 3300-3200 BC, Abydos, Egypt. This artifact suggests the influence of Mesopotamia on Egypt at an early date, as part of ancient Egypt-Mesopotamia relations. Gebel el-Arak Knife ivory handle (front top part detail).jpg
Likeness of a Mesopotamian king as Master of Animals on the Gebel el-Arak Knife, dated circa 3300–3200 BC, Abydos, Egypt. This artifact suggests the influence of Mesopotamia on Egypt at an early date, as part of ancient Egypt-Mesopotamia relations.

Distinctly foreign objects and art forms entered Egypt during this period, indicating contacts with several parts of Asia. Scientific analysis of ancient wine jars in Abydos has shown that there was some high-volume wine trade with the Levant during this period. [62] Objects such as the Gebel el-Arak knife handle, which has patently Mesopotamian relief carvings on it, have been found in Egypt, [79] and the silver which appears in this period can only have been obtained from Asia Minor. [80]

Lapis lazuli trade, in the form of beads, from its only known prehistoric source – Badakhshan in northeastern Afghanistan – also reached ancient Gerzeh. [81]

These imports from Mesopotamia appear to have been quite intensive during the late Gerzean period, and correspond to the Protoliterate b and c cultures of Mesopotamia. [82]

Warfare

Numerous scenes of warfare appears on decorated ivories of the period, especially on knife handles such as the Gebel el-Arak knife. [75] The period has been characterized as a period of expansion and consolidation, establishing the basis for the formation of the Egyptian empire. [75]

In the Gebel el-Arak knife, the fighting figurines are armed with flint knives, clubs and also pear-shaped maces, which are considered as an innovation introduced from Mesopotamia, replacing the initial Egyptian disk-shaped mace. [83] Some authors have suggested that the reliefs represent a battle between warriors of the cities of Abydos and Hierakonpolis, the two main rival Egyptian cities of the period, and that the victor was Abydos. [84] In effect, most of Egypt became unified under rulers from Abydos during the Naqada III period. [85]

Another knife with very similar iconography, including depictions of warriors, prisoners and nearly identical types of ships can be seen in the Metropolitan Museum of Art (Accession number: 26.241.1). [86] Numerous objects from the Naqada II period are similar to the Gebel el-Arak Knife in style and content. [87]

Maceheads

Egyptian disk macehead 4000-3400 BCE.jpg
Egyptian disk-shaped macehead 4000–3400 BCE
Egg-Shaped Mace Head 3500-3300 BCE Naqada II.jpg
Egyptian macehead, 3500–3300 BCE

Egyptians used traditional disk-shaped maceheads during the early phase of Naqada culture, circa 4000–3400 BCE. At the end of the period, the disk-shaped macehead was replaced by the militarily superior Mesopotamian-style pear-shaped macehead as seen on the Narmer Palette. [95] The Mesopotamian macehead was much heavier with a wider impact surface, and was capable of giving much more damaging blows than the original Egyptian disk-shaped macehead. [95]

Cylinder seals

It is generally thought that cylinder seals were introduced from Mesopotamia to Egypt during the Naqada II period. [96] Cylinder seals, some coming from Mesopotamia and Elam, and some made locally in Egypt following Mesopotamian designs in a stylized manner, have been discovered in the tombs of Upper Egypt dating to Naqada II and III, particularly in Hierakonpolis. [60] [97] Mesopotamia cylinder seals have been found in the Gerzean context of Naqada II, in Naqada and Hiw, attesting to the expansion of the Jemdet Nasr culture as far as Egypt at the end of the 4th millennium BC. [98] [96]

Jemdet Nasr-style Mesopotamian cylinder seal, from Grave 7304 Cemetery 7000 at Naqada, Naqada II period. Jemdet Nasr style Mesopotamian cylinder seal from Grave 7304 Cemetery 7000 at Naqada.jpg
Jemdet Nasr-style Mesopotamian cylinder seal, from Grave 7304 Cemetery 7000 at Naqada, Naqada II period.

In Egypt, cylinder seals suddenly appear without local antecedents from around Naqada II c-d (3500–3300 BC). [99] The designs are similar to those of Mesopotamia, where they were invented during the early 4th millennium BC, during the Uruk period, as an evolutionary step from various accounting systems and seals going back as early as the 7th millennium BC. [99] The earliest Egyptian cylinder seals are clearly similar to contemporary Uruk seals down to Naqada II-d (circa 3300 BC), and may even have been manufactured by Mesopotamian craftsman, but they start to diverge from circa 3300 BC to become more Egyptian in character. [99] Cylinder seals were made in Egypt as late as the Second Intermediate Period, but they were essentially replaced by scarabs from the time of the Middle Kingdom. [96]

Burials

Burial sites in Gerzeh have uncovered artifacts, such as cosmetic palettes, a bone harpoon, an ivory pot, stone vessels, and several meteoritic iron beads, [100] Technologies at Gerzeh also include fine ripple-flaked knives of exceptional workmanship. The meteoritic iron beads, discovered in two Gerzean graves by Egyptologist Wainwright in 1911, [101] are the earliest artifacts of iron known, [102] dating to around 3200 BC [103] (see also Iron Age).

One burial uncovered evidence of decapitation. [104]

Religion

Reconstruction of the Koptos colossi, pre-dynastic colossal statues of the God Min, Koptos, Late Naqada II- Early Naqada III, about 3300 BCE. God Min, Temple of Koptos, circa 3300 BCE (reconstruction drawing and existing pieces I, II and III).png
Reconstruction of the Koptos colossi, pre-dynastic colossal statues of the God Min, Koptos, Late Naqada II- Early Naqada III, about 3300 BCE.

The worship of nameless supernatural powers, numina , may go back thousands of millennia before Naqada, mainly revolving around the worship of supernatural beasts, votive figurines, or bearded human effigies. [106] Organized religion however seems to first appear during Naqada IID, with images of the goddess Bat and possibly the fertility god Min, both symbolized by proto-hieroglyphic signs. [106]

Bat appears as a cloaked female, with cow horns and surrounding stars, a possible symbol of divinity similar to the dingir of Mesopotamian culture. [106] The first image specifically identifying Bat is a Naqada IID greywacke palette from Gerzeh. [106] She appears as a cloaked, horned female. She has extended arms and a star replaces her head and her hands. She has two additional stars at her waist. This exact motif is also known from other contemporary artifacts. Bat can also be shown symbolically as a bovine head with human shoulders. [106]

The first known depictions of the Egyptian god of fertility Min, appear in the form of monumental statues discovered in an ancient temple at Koptos, dated to the late Naqada II to early Naqada III periods, and now displayed in the Ashmolean Museum following their discovery by Flinders Petrie in Koptos at the end of the 19th century. [73] [105] The estimated size of the three known statues ranges from 372 cm to 403 cm. [107] The statues show a bearded man, naked but for a belt and a sash, holding his erect penis. [73] An early form of the character for "Min" is inscribed on the side of one of these statues. [73]

On the Koptos monumental statues of Min, generally dated to circa 3300 BCE during the late Naqada II- early Naqada III periods, the Min symbol is inscribed, together with marine objects: the "sword" of a sawfish and two shells of the Pterocera species. [73] [74] These symbols seem to corroborate the traditional origin histories of the god, according to which he originated in the fabulous "Land of Punt", in the Eritrean region bordering on the Red Sea. [74] [108]

See also

Chronology of state formation in Ancient Egypt. Chronology of state formation in Ancient Egypt.png
Chronology of state formation in Ancient Egypt.

Notes

  1. 1 2 Kemp, Barry John (2018). Ancient Egypt: anatomy of a civilization (3rd ed.). New-York (NY): Routledge. p.  42, Fig.2.6. ISBN   978-0415827263.
  2. 1 2 Hendrickx, Stan (1996), "The relative chronology of the Naqada culture: Problems and possibilities", in Spencer, Jeffrey (ed.), Aspects of Early Egypt, London: British Museum Press, p. 64
  3. ↑ Falling Rain Genomics, Inc. "Geographical information on Jirzah, Egypt" . Retrieved 2008-03-22.
  4. ↑ University College London. "Map of the area between Meydum and Tarkhan". Digital Egypt for Universities. Retrieved 2008-03-22.
  5. ↑ Hendrickx, Stan (2006). "Predynastic—Early Dynastic Chronology". Ancient Egyptian Chronology (PDF). Brill. p. 92, Table II. 1.7. Absolute chronology. ISBN   978 90 04 11385 5.
  6. ↑ Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. p.  481. ISBN   0-19-815034-2.
  7. 1 2 3 4 Terres du Nil - L'Art des Potiers avant Pharaon (PDF). Saint-Germain-en-Laye: Musée d'Archéologie Nationale. 2024.
  8. ↑ Josephson, Jack A.; Dreyer, Günter (January 2015). "Naqada IId: The Birth of an Empire Kingship, Writing, Organized Religion". Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt. 51 (1): 165–166. doi:10.5913/JARCE.51.2015.A007. We believe that the foundations of dynastic Egypt were laid in the Naqada IId period (ca. 3350–3150 BC), strengthened during the ensuing Naqada IIIa period, a process that culminated with the formation of Dynasty 0 (ca. 3150–3000 BC), the onset of the Archaic period.
  9. ↑ Josephson, Jack A.; Dreyer, Günter (January 2015). "Naqada IId: The Birth of an Empire Kingship, Writing, Organized Religion". Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt. 51 (1): 165–166. doi:10.5913/JARCE.51.2015.A007. These artistic accomplishments were coeval with the development of kingship, writing, and organized religion (which we deine as the emergence of defined gods).
  10. ↑ Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt . Oxford University Press. p.  479. ISBN   0-19-815034-2.
  11. ↑ Klemm, Dietrich; Klemm, Rosemarie; Murr, Andreas (January 2001). "Gold of the Pharaohs – 6000 years of gold mining in Egypt and Nubia". Journal of African Earth Sciences. 33 (3–4): 643–659, Fig.9. doi:10.1016/S0899-5362(01)00094-X.
  12. ↑ Trigger, Bruce G. (1983). Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge University Press. p. 39. ISBN   978-0-521-28427-1.
  13. ↑ The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. OUP Oxford. 23 October 2003. p. 58. ISBN   978-0-19-160462-1.
  14. ↑ The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. OUP Oxford. 23 October 2003. p. 58. ISBN   978-0-19-160462-1.
  15. ↑ El-Shahawy, Abeer; al-Miṣrī, Matḥaf (2005). The Egyptian Museum in Cairo. American Univ in Cairo Press. p. 15, Fig.4. ISBN   978-977-17-2183-3.
  16. 1 2 Klemm, Dietrich; Klemm, Rosemarie; Murr, Andreas (January 2001). "Gold of the Pharaohs – 6000 years of gold mining in Egypt and Nubia". Journal of African Earth Sciences. 33 (3–4): 643–659. doi:10.1016/S0899-5362(01)00094-X.
  17. 1 2 3 Trigger, Bruce G. (1983). Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge University Press. pp. 36–37. ISBN   978-0-521-28427-1.
  18. 1 2 Trigger, Bruce G. (1983). Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge University Press. p. 40. ISBN   978-0-521-28427-1.
  19. 1 2 3 4 Shaw, Ian, ed. (2003). The Oxford history of ancient Egypt. Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press. p. 59. ISBN   9780192804587.
  20. ↑ Shaw, Ian, ed. (2003). The Oxford history of ancient Egypt. Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 44–45. ISBN   9780192804587.
  21. ↑ "Ivory comb with human figure". www.ashmolean.org. Ashmolean Museum.
  22. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Graff, Gwenola (24 March 2022). "The Iconography on Decorated Ware". Préhistoires de l’écriture. Presses universitaires de Provence. p.  48 ff. ISBN   979-10-320-0369-5.
  23. 1 2 Hornung, Erik; Krauss, Rolf; Warburton, David A. (30 December 2006). Ancient Egyptian Chronology. BRILL. p. 76. ISBN   978-90-474-0400-2.
  24. ↑ Hornung, Erik; Krauss, Rolf; Warburton, David A. (30 December 2006). Ancient Egyptian Chronology. BRILL. pp. 76–77. ISBN   978-90-474-0400-2.
  25. 1 2 3 Trigger, Bruce G. (1983). Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge University Press. pp. 39–40. ISBN   978-0-521-28427-1.
  26. ↑ "Ivory comb with human figure". www.ashmolean.org. Ashmolean Museum.
  27. ↑ "Anthropomorphic tusk". www.ashmolean.org. Ashmolean Museum.
  28. 1 2 3 4 Hendrickx, Stan; Adams, Barbara; Friedman, R. F. (2004). Egypt at Its Origins: Studies in Memory of Barbara Adams : Proceedings of the International Conference "Origin of the State, Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt", Krakow, 28 August – 1st September 2002. Peeters Publishers. pp. 893–894. ISBN   978-90-429-1469-8.
  29. 1 2 3 Hendrickx, Stan; Adams, Barbara; Friedman, R. F. (2004). Egypt at Its Origins: Studies in Memory of Barbara Adams: Proceedings of the International Conference "Origin of the State, Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt", Krakow, 28 August – 1 September 2002. Peeters Publishers. p. 892. ISBN   978-90-429-1469-8.
  30. ↑ Hendrickx, Stan; Eyckerman, Merel (2011). "Tusks and tags: between the hippopotamus and the Naqada plant". EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS 3 Proceedings of the Third International Conference “Origin of the State. Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt”, London, 27th July – 1st August 2008. ORIENTALIA LOVANIENSIA ANALECTA, UITGEVERIJ PEETERS en DEPARTEMENT OOSTERSE STUDIES. p. 518.
  31. ↑ Petrie, William Matthew Flinders (1853-1942) (1939). The making of Egypt. p. Plate XI.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  32. 1 2 3 4 Hendrickx, Stan; Eyckerman, Merel (2011). "Tusks and tags: between the hippopotamus and the Naqada plant". EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS 3 Proceedings of the Third International Conference “Origin of the State. Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt”, London, 27th July – 1st August 2008. ORIENTALIA LOVANIENSIA ANALECTA, UITGEVERIJ PEETERS en DEPARTEMENT OOSTERSE STUDIES. pp. 510, 499.
  33. ↑ Sharp, Iryna (22 February 2018). Egyptian Predynastic Anthropomorphic Objects: A Study of Their Function and Significance in Predynastic Burial Customs. Archaeopress Publishing. pp. Grave 3165 p.92 Fig.2, Grave 3828 p.77. ISBN   978178491778 4.
  34. ↑ Nowak, Edyta Maria (2004). "Egyptian Predynastic Ivories Decorated With Anthropomorphic Motifs". Egypt at Its Origins: Studies in Memory of Barbara Adams : Proceedings of the International Conference "Origin of the State, Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt," Krakow, 28 August - 1st September 2002. Peeters Publishers. p. 898. ISBN   978-90-429-1469-8.
  35. ↑ "The Global Egyptian Museum". www.globalegyptianmuseum.org. Musée de Bruxelles. pp. (with modern photographs) E.2331A, E.2331A, E.2329.
  36. ↑ "Naqadan Art, human figures (modern color photographs)". www.ucl.ac.uk. University College, London.
  37. ↑ "Naqadan Art, human figures (modern color photographs)". www.ucl.ac.uk. University College, London.
  38. ↑ "Ashmolean Museum". www.ashmolean.org.
  39. ↑ Hollis, Susan Tower (3 October 2019). Five Egyptian Goddesses: Their Possible Beginnings, Actions, and Relationships in the Third Millennium BCE. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 29. ISBN   978-1-78093-794-6.
  40. ↑ Chaos en beheersing: Documenten uit aeneolitisch Egypte. BRILL. 14 October 2024. p. 305. ISBN   978-90-04-67093-8. Fragment of a "blacktopped" pot, red polished pottery with black rim, a representation of the "Red Crown" of Lower Egypt was modelled in the clay, before it was baked. Amratian (S.D. 35-39), from Naqada, tomb 1610. Oxford Ashmolean Museum 1895.795
  41. ↑ "Black top shard 1895.795". www.ashmolean.org. Ashmolean Museum.
  42. 1 2 Wilkinson, Toby A. H. (11 September 2002). Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge. p. 163. ISBN   978-1-134-66420-7. Although the red crown is associated in historic times with Lower Egypt, it is generally assumed that it originated as the distinctive headpiece of the Predynastic rulers of Naqada. The colour red was traditionally associated with Seth, the local god of Naqada. The shape of the crown is quite distinctive, but again its symbolic meaning is unknown.
  43. ↑ "Ashmolean Museum". www.ashmolean.org.
  44. ↑ "Naqada IIA beaker". www.ashmolean.org. Ashmolean Museum. Predynastic Period, Naqada IIA (Egypt) (c. 3800 - 3450 BCE)
  45. ↑ Garfinkel, Yosef (October 2001). "Dancing or Fighting? A Recently Discovered Predynastic Scene from Abydos, Egypt". Cambridge Archaeological Journal. 11 (2): 247, Figure 10.3, 249. doi:10.1017/S0959774301000130. From the Naqada I phase, contemporary with the three scenes presented above, two other pottery vessels bear anthropomorphic figures with upraised arms. The first was found in Grave 1449 at Naqada (Crowfoot Payne 1993, 34, no. 105). This is a tall beaker with burnished red slip on the body, burnished black slip near the rim (Black-topped ware), and an applied human figure (Fig. 10:3). Only the upper part of the human body has been depicted, with breasts that clearly indicate a female figure. She is represented with upraised arms.
  46. ↑ "Naqada IIA jar fragment". www.ashmolean.org. Ashmolean Museum.
  47. 1 2 3 4 5 "Female Figure". Brooklyn Museum.
  48. 1 2 3 Garfinkel, Yosef (October 2001). "Dancing or Fighting? A Recently Discovered Predynastic Scene from Abydos, Egypt". Cambridge Archaeological Journal. 11 (2): 249–251. doi:10.1017/S0959774301000130.
  49. ↑ Petrie, William Matthew Flinders (1853-1942) (1939). The making of Egypt (1939). p. Plate XV.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  50. ↑ "Rampant lions". www.ashmolean.org. Ashmolean Museum.
  51. ↑ Hornung, Erik; Krauss, Rolf; Warburton, David A. (30 December 2006). Ancient Egyptian Chronology. BRILL. p. 78. ISBN   978-90-474-0400-2.
  52. ↑ Hornung, Erik; Krauss, Rolf; Warburton, David A. (30 December 2006). Ancient Egyptian Chronology. BRILL. p. 78. ISBN   978-90-474-0400-2.
  53. ↑ Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. p.  43. ISBN   0-19-815034-2.
  54. ↑ Graff, Gwenola (24 March 2022). "The Iconography on Decorated Ware". Préhistoires de l’écriture. Presses universitaires de Provence. p.  50, Fig.2. ISBN   979-10-320-0369-5.
  55. ↑ "Metmuseum". www.metmuseum.org.
  56. ↑ The Oxford history of ancient Egypt (New ed.). Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press. 2003. p. 58. ISBN   978-0-19-280458-7.
  57. ↑ Prezioso, Emanuele (2020). "Cognitive Archaeology and the "Ancient Mind": Mesopotamian Motifs in the Formation of Egyptian Elites in the IV Millennium". From the Prehistory of Upper Mesopotamia to the Bronze and Iron Age societies of the Levant: proceedings of the 5th "Broadening Horizons" Conference (Udine 5-8 june 2017). Trieste: EUT, Edizioni Università di Trieste. p. 136, Fig.11. ISBN   9788855110464.
  58. ↑ "Ashmolean Museum". www.ashmolean.org.
  59. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Teeter, Emily (2011). Before the pyramids : the origins of Egyptian civilization. Chicago, Ill.: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. p. 166. ISBN   978-1-885923-82-0.
  60. 1 2 Hartwig, Melinda K. (2014). A Companion to Ancient Egyptian Art. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 424–425. ISBN   978-1-4443-3350-3.
  61. ↑ Rowlands, Michael J. (1987). Centre and Periphery in the Ancient World. Cambridge University Press. p. 37. ISBN   9780521251037.
  62. 1 2 3 Scarre, Chris; Fagan, Brian M. (2016). Ancient Civilizations. Routledge. p. 106. ISBN   9781317296089.
  63. 1 2 Hayes, William C. (1978). The Scepter of Egypt: A Background for the Study of the Egyptian Antiquities in The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Vol. 1, From the Earliest Times to the End of the Middle Kingdom. Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 15–18, 22–24.
  64. ↑ Hayes, William C. (1978). The Scepter of Egypt: A Background for the Study of the Egyptian Antiquities in The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Vol. 1, From the Earliest Times to the End of the Middle Kingdom. Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 15–18, 22–24. Stone vases of unsurpassed beauty and technical excellence were turned out in large numbers by the talented northerners (fig. 15). In these we find a great variety of shapes, sizes, and materials
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  66. 1 2 3 4 5 6 El-Shahawy, Abeer; al-Miṣrī, Matḥaf (2005). The Egyptian Museum in Cairo. American Univ in Cairo Press. p. 15-17, Fig.4. ISBN   978-977-17-2183-3.
  67. ↑ Kemp, Barry John (2018). Ancient Egypt: anatomy of a civilization (3rd ed.). New-York (NY): Routledge. p. 32/44, Fig.2.18. ISBN   978-0415827263. Early in the developmental sequence of kingship is tomb 100 (the 'Decorated Tomb'), probably the tomb of an early king of Hierakonpolis of the Nagada IIC phase (c. 3400–3300 BC).
  68. 1 2 Shaw, Ian (2019). Ancient Egyptian Warfare: Tactics, Weaponry and Ideology of the Pharaohs. Open Road Media. p. 22. ISBN   978-1-5040-6059-2.
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  70. ↑ Bestock, Laurel (2017). Violence and Power in Ancient Egypt: Image and Ideology before the New Kingdom. Routledge. p. 94. ISBN   978-1-134-85626-8.
  71. ↑ Hartwig, Melinda K. (2014). A Companion to Ancient Egyptian Art. John Wiley & Sons. p. 424. ISBN   978-1-118-32509-4.
  72. ↑ "The seal impressions, from various tombs, date even further back, to 3400 B.C. These dates challenge the commonly held belief that early logographs, pictographic symbols representing a specific place, object, or quantity, first evolved into more complex phonetic symbols in Mesopotamia." Mitchell, Larkin. "Earliest Egyptian Glyphs". Archaeology. Archaeological Institute of America. Retrieved 29 February 2012.
  73. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Baqué-Manzano, Lucas (2002). "Further arguments on the Coptos colossi". Bulletin de l'Institut français d'archéologie orientale (BIFAO) (102): 17–61.
  74. 1 2 3 Betrò, Maria C. (1996). Hieroglyphics : the writings of ancient Egypt. p. 211.
  75. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Josephson, Jack (29 November 2015). "Naqada IId, Birth of an Empire". Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt (51): 166–169. doi:10.5913/JARCE.51.2015.A007.
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  77. ↑ "Site officiel du musée du Louvre". cartelfr.louvre.fr.
  78. ↑ Cooper, Jerrol S. (1996). The Study of the Ancient Near East in the Twenty-first Century: The William Foxwell Albright Centennial Conference. Eisenbrauns. pp. 10–14. ISBN   9780931464966.
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  80. ↑ Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 16.
  81. ↑ University College London. "Gerzeh, tomb 80". Digital Egypt for Universities. Retrieved 2008-03-22.
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  83. ↑ Isler, Martin (2001). Sticks, Stones, and Shadows: Building the Egyptian Pyramids. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 42. ISBN   978-0-8061-3342-3.
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  85. ↑ Thompson, Jason (2008). A History of Egypt: From Earliest Times to the Present. American Univ in Cairo Press. p. 18. ISBN   978-977-416-091-2.
  86. ↑ Williams, Bruce; Logan, Thomas J.; Murnane, William J. (1987). "The Metropolitan Museum Knife Handle and Aspects of Pharaonic Imagery before Narmer". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 46 (4): 245–285. doi:10.1086/373253. ISSN   0022-2968. JSTOR   544868. S2CID   162209013.
  87. ↑ Josephson, Jack. "Naqada IId, Birth of an Empire". Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt: 165–175.
  88. ↑ King, Leonard William (1918). Legends of Babylon and Egypt in Relation to Hebrew Tradition. Oxford University Press. pp. 14–15. ISBN   9783748182030.{{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  89. ↑ Josephson, Jack. "Naqada IId, Birth of an Empire". Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt: 166.
  90. ↑ William Foxwell Albright Centennial Conference (1996). The Study of the Ancient Near East in the Twenty-first Century: The William Foxwell Albright Centennial Conference. Eisenbrauns. p. 14. ISBN   978-0-931464-96-6.
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  92. ↑ Hartwig, Melinda K. (2014). A Companion to Ancient Egyptian Art. John Wiley & Sons. p. 424. ISBN   978-1-118-32509-4.
  93. ↑ For an image of a similar high-prowed boat: Porada, Edith (1993). "Why Cylinder Seals? Engraved Cylindrical Seal Stones of the Ancient Near East, Fourth to First Millennium B.C.". The Art Bulletin. 75 (4): 566, image 8. doi:10.2307/3045984. ISSN   0004-3079. JSTOR   3045984.
  94. ↑ Josephson, Jack (29 November 2015). "Naqada IId, Birth of an Empire". The Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt. 51: 169, 172 Fig.5. doi:10.5913/JARCE.51.2015.A007.
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  98. ↑ Isler, Martin (2001). Sticks, Stones, and Shadows: Building the Egyptian Pyramids. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 33. ISBN   978-0-8061-3342-3.
  99. 1 2 3 Honoré, Emmanuelle (January 2007). "Earliest Cylinder-Seal Glyptic in Egypt: From Greater Mesopotamia to Naqada". H. Hanna Ed., Preprints of the International Conference on Heritage of Naqada and Qus Region, Volume I.
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  101. ↑ Great Pyramid of Giza Research Association. "The use of meteorites by the Ancient Egyptians" . Retrieved 2008-03-22.
  102. ↑ "metalwork: Early history.". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2008-03-22.
  103. ↑ Jambon, Albert (2017). "Bronze Age iron: Meteoritic or not? A chemical strategy" (PDF). Journal of Archaeological Science. 88. Elsevier BV: 47–53. Bibcode:2017JArSc..88...47J. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2017.09.008. ISSN   0305-4403. S2CID   55644155.
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  106. 1 2 3 4 5 Josephson, Jack A.; Dreyer, Günter (January 2015). "Naqada IId: The Birth of an Empire Kingship, Writing, Organized Religion". Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt. 51 (1): 173–177. doi:10.5913/JARCE.51.2015.A007.
  107. ↑ Baqué-Manzano, Lucas (2002). "Further arguments on the Coptos colossi". Bulletin de l'Institut français d'archéologie orientale (BIFAO) (102): 42.
  108. ↑ Olette-Pelletier, Jean-Guillaume (1 January 2021). "Min and the other Egyptian gods". Akhmîm. Egypt's Forgotten City. Staatliche Museen zu Berlin. p. 68.
  109. ↑ Polz, Daniel; Seidlmayer, Stephan Johannes; Hendrickx, Stan (2016). "The origin and early significance of the White Crown". Gedenkschrift für Werner Kaiser. Mainz: Zabern. pp. 234–235. ISBN   978-3-11-041802-6.
  110. ↑ Kemp, Barry John (2018). Ancient Egypt: anatomy of a civilization (3rd ed.). New-York (NY): Routledge. p. 14/44, Fig.2.6. ISBN   978-0415827263. Early in the developmental sequence of kingship is tomb 100 (the 'Decorated Tomb'), probably the tomb of an early king of Hierakonpolis of the Nagada IIC phase (c. 3400–3300 BC).

Bibliography

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