The current hereditary emir of Qatar, Tamim bin Hamad al-Thani, runs the country in an autocratic manner and holds nearly all executive and legislative authority, as well as controlling the judiciary. He appoints the prime minister and cabinet. Political rights are severely limited in Qatar as per Freedom House.[3]
Legal system
Sharia law is a main source of Qatari legislation according to Qatar's constitution.[4][5] Sharia, derived from the Arabic term meaning 'the path to follow,' supposedly constitutes a divine revelation conveyed by God to the Prophet Muhammad, the eminent figure in the establishment of Islam, during the year AD 570. Consequently, Sharia embodies a religious framework characterized by its origins and regulations. This legal system, seemingly unidirectional, emanates from God to the individual. The Islamic Sharia is regarded as the primary foundation, necessitating the formulation of legislative and judicial frameworks grounded in Islamic legal principles to govern transactions within Qatari law.[6] Sharia law is applied to laws pertaining to family law, inheritance, and several criminal acts (including adultery, robbery and murder). In some cases in Sharia-based family courts, a female's testimony is worth half a man's and in some cases a female witness is not accepted at all.[7] Codified family law was introduced in 2006. In practice, Qatar's legal system is a mixture of civil law and Islamic law.[8][9]
In 2016, Saudi Instagram star and model King Luxy was arrested in Qatar for allegedly being homosexual. He spent 2 months in custody before he was released. Qatari embassy in turn reported that he was arrested before departing from Qatar's only civilian international airport for various charges having nothing to do with his sexual preference and counter-alleged him for intruding on the privacy of a Qatari citizen.[10]
In 2014, Qatar launched a modesty campaign to remind tourists of the modest dress code.[14] Female tourists are advised not to wear leggings, miniskirts, sleeveless dresses and short or tight clothing in public. Men are advised against wearing only shorts and singlets.[15]
Commercial relationships are governed by Qatar's Civil Code.[18]
Qatar's government has been criticized for arresting and threatening anyone who dares to speak out.[19] In the report published by the Euro-Med Human Rights Monitor on 13 September 2020, it was declared that Article 19 in the International Declaration of Human Rights stipulates that "everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference." Similarly, Article 47 in the Constitution of Qatar stipulates that freedom of expression is guaranteed in accordance with the conditions and circumstances set forth in law.[20]
Alcohol
Alcohol consumption is partially legal in Qatar, some five-star luxury hotels are allowed to sell alcohol to their non-Muslim customers.[21][22] Muslims are not allowed to consume alcohol in Qatar and Muslims caught consuming alcohol are liable to flogging or deportation. Non-Muslim expatriates can obtain a permit to purchase alcohol for personal consumption. The Qatar Distribution Company (a subsidiary of Qatar Airways) is permitted to import alcohol and pork; it operates the one and only liquor store in the country, which also sells pork to holders of liquor licences.[23] Qatari officials had also indicated a willingness to allow alcohol in "fan zones" at the 2022 FIFA World Cup.[24]
Until recently, restaurants on The Pearl Island (a human-made island near Doha) were allowed to serve alcoholic drinks.[21][22] In December 2011, however, restaurants on the Pearl were told to stop selling alcohol.[21][25] No explanation was given for the ban.[21][22] Speculation about the reason includes the government's desire to project a more pious image in advance of the country's first election of a royal advisory body and rumours of a financial dispute between the government and the resort's developers.[25] Despite the economic consequences of the ban, many believe that it has been a necessary measure in order to ensure the safety and enjoyment of fans at the World Cup. Qatar's World Cup chief executive of the Supreme Committee for Delivery and Legacy, Nasser Al Khater, stated that the purpose of the designated sobering-up areas was to ensure the fans' safety.[26] The absence of alcohol has helped to create a more positive and enjoyable atmosphere at the event, with a more family-friendly environment being evident. The lack of alcohol had contributed to a less bawdy atmosphere around the games at the World Cup which led to a safer experience female fans at the tournament[27][28]
Workers
In February 2022, The African Regional Organization of the International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC-Africa) welcomed the recent announcement by the Qatar government to abolish exit permits for migrant workers. ITUC commended Qatari government for the obvious show of genuine commitment towards meeting their pledge made to the International Labour Organisation (ILO) to effectively reform their labour laws so as to bring in conformity with ILO Conventions and other international statutes.[29]
Cases of ill-treatment of immigrant labour have been observed. The Nepalese ambassador to Qatar, Maya Kumari Sharma, described the emirate as an "open jail".[30] Qatar does not have national occupational health standards or guidelines, and workplace injuries are the third highest cause of accidental deaths.[31] In May 2012, Qatari officials declared their intention to allow the establishment of an independent trade union.[32] Qatar also announced it will scrap its sponsor system for foreign labour, which requires that all foreign workers be sponsored by local employers, who in some cases hold workers' passports and can deny them permission to change jobs.[32]
In August 2022, 60 migrant workers were arrested and deported for protesting against the non-payment by their employer, Al Bandary International Group, a major construction and hospitality firm. Some of the demonstrators were from Nepal, Bangladesh, India, Egypt and the Philippines had not been paid for seven months.[33] According to a report published by France 24, those protesters were detained for breaching public security laws and minority of protesters were deported by the order of court who failed to remain peaceful and breached Qatar's public security law. Qatar's labour ministry said it will pay Al Bandary workers and will take further action against the company which was already under investigation for failing to pay wages.[34]
Politically, Qatar is evolving from a traditional society into a modern welfare state. Government departments have been established to meet the requirements of social and economic progress. The Basic Law of Qatar 1970 institutionalized local customs rooted in Qatar's conservative Islamic heritage, granting the Emir preeminent power. The Emir's role is influenced by continuing traditions of consultation, rule by consensus, and the citizen's right to appeal personally to the Emir. The Emir, while directly accountable to no one, cannot violate the Sharia (Islamic law) and, in practice, must consider the opinions of leading notables and the religious establishment. Their position was institutionalized in the Advisory Council, an appointed body that assists the Emir in formulating policy.
In February 1972, the heir apparent and Prime Minister, Sheikh Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani, deposed his cousin, Emir Ahmad, and assumed power. This move was supported by the key members of Al Thani and took place without violence or signs of political unrest,
On 27 June 1995, the heir apparent, Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani, deposed his father, Emir Khalifa, in another bloodless coup.[36] Emir Hamad and his father reconciled in 1996. Increased freedom of the press followed, and the Qatar-based Al Jazeera television channel (founded late 1996) is widely regarded as an example of an uncensored source of news in Arab countries. However, the network has been met with negative responses by the governments of many Arab states.[37] However in May 2022, Al Jazeera network won the award for the best human rights journalism of the year in the eighth annual Amnesty Media Awards. The network was also claimed to be non-biased network by The Week (Washington DC media house) in November 2022.[38]
On 25 June 2013, Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani became the Emir of Qatar after his father Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani handed over power in a televised speech.[39]
The Ministry of Commerce and Industry in Qatar is responsible for overseeing and directing commercial and industrial activities in line with national development goals. Its mandate includes promoting business development to attract investments, supporting exports, regulating trade professions, registering commercial and investment establishments, issuing licenses, and overseeing market regulation in its jurisdiction.[40]
The Ministry of Justice in Qatar oversees the country's judicial system, emphasizing the promotion of human rights and the rule of law. It has introduced the SAK online portal for efficient processing of e-services, prioritizing user privacy. The ministry provides a variety of services to individuals, businesses, investors, and government bodies.[41]
The Ministry of Interior in Qatar is responsible for ensuring internal security, maintaining law and order, and safeguarding national interests. It actively promotes peace, organizes police forces, and takes measures to prevent crimes. The ministry also oversees nationality-related affairs, issues travel documents, and regulates corporate immigration matters, requiring companies to hold an Establishment Card. Additionally, it manages the entry and residence of expatriates while regulating official documents for expatriate employees.[42]
The Ministry of Labour in Qatar is responsible for regulating employment matters, including the formulation and execution of public policies and systems for the workforce. It oversees recruitment policies, promotes Qatarization of jobs, and ensures the social and legal protection of migrant workers while enforcing the Labour Law.[43]
The Ministry of Finance in Qatar oversees financial affairs, promotes economic growth, and manages policies related to taxation, budgeting, and public debt. It plays a crucial role in ensuring financial stability and sustainability. The ministry is responsible for the General Tax Authority (GTA) and provides the Dhareeba (Tax) online portal for company registration, annual audits, and handling tax-related matters.[44]
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Qatar manages the country's foreign relations and diplomacy, providing attestation services for both local documents for international use and foreign documents within Qatar. Fusion, affiliated with the ministry, offers full attestation services and official translation between English and Arabic for foreign documents.[45]
The Ministry of Education and Higher Education (MOEHE) in Qatar is dedicated to promoting and developing the country's education system. It oversees initiatives and policies related to school curriculums, teacher training, and educational programs. The ministry also regulates private schools, kindergartens, and nurseries, with Fusion providing assistance in obtaining necessary approvals such as the School's Education license. This includes managing curriculum approval, school premises inspection, and coordinating processes in preparation for the start of each new school year.[46]
The Ministry of Public Health (MOPH) oversees the quality of services provided by public and private health service providers in Qatar. It manages public health programs, including disease prevention, occupational health, and national immunization. The ministry is responsible for formulating and monitoring national health strategies. Healthcare practitioners must be registered and licensed by The Department of Healthcare Professions (DHP). Setting up private medical facilities requires approval from MOPH and relevant licensing, a process Fusion can assist with, including setup, licensing, and renewals.[47]
The Ministry of Municipality (MOM) in Qatar is responsible for promoting and regulating sustainable development. It oversees initiatives related to urban planning, environmental conservation, and public health, playing a crucial role in ensuring a sustainable future for the country. The ministry includes bodies such as the Qatar General Authority for Standardization and Metrology and the Engineering Committee, which regulates engineering licenses for companies and individuals. Fusion can assist international engineering consultancies in setting up in Qatar by facilitating the required licensing processes.[48]
The Ministry of Environment and Climate Change in Qatar is tasked with the promotion and regulation of environmental policies and initiatives. The ministry is dedicated to fostering sustainability and mitigating carbon emissions within the country.[49]
The Ministry of Transport in Qatar oversees and regulates the transportation sector. It provides special approvals for certain transport-related commercial activities and facilitates the process of obtaining approvals for temporary road regulation, machinery transport, and the establishment of various facilities.[50]
The Ministry of Communications and Information Technology in Qatar oversees and regulates the communication and information technology sectors. It works in conjunction with the Communications Regulatory Authority (CRA) to manage approvals for importing specific equipment to the Qatari market. The ministry also grants special approvals for commercial activities related to communication and information technology.[51]
The Ministry of Sports and Youth in Qatar promotes and regulates sports and youth-related activities, overseeing the Olympic movement and fostering community participation in sports. With a notable record of hosting major events, including the historic FIFA World Cup 2022, Qatar has positioned itself as a leading host for international sports events such as the Formula 1® Qatar Airways Qatar Grand Prix in October 2023, the 2023 AFC Asian Cup from January 12 to February 10, 2024, and the FIBA Basketball World Cup 2027.[52]
The Ministry of Culture in Qatar acts as the regulatory authority for a variety of licenses, covering areas such as advertising, public relations, artistic production, cinema theaters, educational book imports, photography, film shooting, music education, concerts, and creative events. With a primary goal of promoting cultural diversity and the arts, the ministry plays a crucial role in overseeing diverse cultural activities in Qatar.[53]
The Ministry of Endowments and Islamic Affairs in Qatar promotes and regulates Islamic affairs, overseeing initiatives in Islamic education, charity, and community development. It also encourages interfaith dialogue and cooperation among various religious communities in the country.[55]
Consultative Assembly
The Consultative Assembly (Majlis ash-Shura) is a 45-member partially-elected legislature made up of 30 elected representatives and 15 appointed by the emir. Majlis ash-shura is the process of gathering community opinions, facilitated by knowledgeable individuals who provide their perspectives and ideas on significant questions, problems, or decisions associated with the social, economic, or political aspects of people's lives.[56] Elections were repeatedly delayed after the 2003 constitutional referendum introduced this framework.[57][58][59] In 2006, Deputy Prime Minister Hamad bin Jassim bin Jaber Al Thani announced that elections would be held in 2007. However, only municipal elections were held.[60] Due to voting laws, those who did not have family in the country pre-1930 were not allowed to vote. This excluded 75% of the population.[61] The first general election was eventually held in October 2021.[35]
Political parties and elections
Qatar held a constitutional referendum in 2003, which was overwhelmingly supported. The first municipal elections with men and women voters and candidates were held in 1999 Central Municipal Council. The first legislative election, for two thirds of the legislative council's 45 seats, were planned for 2016 after previously being postponed in 2013.[62] In June 2016 they were effectively postponed to at least 2019.[63] The first general election of members of the Consultative Assembly was held in 2021.[35]
Suffrage is currently limited to municipal elections and two thirds of the seats in the legislative council, with the voting age set at 18. Expatriate residents are excluded, as are the vast number of residents who are prevented from applying for citizenship. The elected Municipal Council has no executive powers but may offer advice to the Minister.[64][65]
Political parties are banned by law. In 2024, Qatar held a constitutional referendum that introduced amendments to end elections for the Shura Council and allow naturalized citizens to be appointed as members and government ministers by removing the requirement of "original" nationality. The changes were presented as measures to promote national unity and stability while maintaining the Emir’s authority over appointments.[66][67]
Qatar’s core foreign policy objective according to The Middle East Journal is "state survival" and the "desire for international prestige". Qatar became notable in international politics; and a key figure in the Arab affairs within two decades of its independent foreign policy.[69] It has an "open-door" foreign policy where it maintain ties to all parties and regional players in the region,[70] including with organizations such as Taliban and Hamas.[71]
Its position in the Middle East and close links with terrorist groups is seen as a great asset to western intelligence community and diplomatic relations.[72] Qatar has also cultivated close foreign relationships with Western powers, particularly the United States and the United Kingdom. Al Udeid Air Base hosts American and British air forces.[73]
On October 10, 2005, for the first time, Qatar was elected to a two-year term on the UN Security Council for 2006–2007.
According to BBC, in April 2006 Qatar announced that it will give US$50 million (£28 million) to the new Hamas-led Palestinian government.
In May 2006, Qatar pledged more than $100 million to Hurricane Katrina relief to colleges and universities in Louisiana affected by the hurricane. Some of this money was also distributed to families looking to repair damaged homes by Neighborhood Housing Services of New Orleans, Inc.
There were some allegations on Qatar for supporting rebels group in Syria and association with al- Nusra front also persisted in country’s profile for a long time.[74] However, the Public Policy and Democracy studies research think tank recognized the nation for its execution of current peace against conflicts strategies and policy upgrades. Other discoveries from the research claimed that Qatar supported the US against the Assad government. Additionally, the nation supported efforts to mediate a conflict-ending political transition in Syria. In March 2021, Qatar, Russia, and Turkey also started a different track of talks on the Syrian peace process.[75][76][77]
The government and royal family of Qatar funds the Al Jazeera television network. The Emir of Qatar Sheikh Hamad bin Khalfia provided a loan of QAR 500 million (USD 137 million) to start the channel.[78] The network has been accused of being biased and taking an active role in the affairs of other countries specifically during the Arab Spring in 2011.[79] Numerous countries have complained about allegedly biased reporting in support of Qatar policy. On 11 January 2015, The Week published a report in which,Al jazeera network was revealed to be non biased and non terrorist network.[80]
Most of the developed countries (plus Brunei and Indonesia) are exempt from visa requirements. Citizens of exempted countries can also request a joint visa that allows them to travel to Oman as well.[81]
Qatar may suffer significant geopolitical losses if there is a global transition to renewable energy. It is ranked 152 out of 156 countries in the index of Geopolitical Gains and Losses after energy transition (GeGaLo).[82]
In September, 2014. QFFD contributed in enhancing stability for Syrian refugees. Qatar Charity facilitated access to quality education through the rehabilitation of 6 Formal schools in Turkey, Gaziantep, Urfa, Kilis, targeting a total number of 13,540 beneficiaries and 12,860 girls and boys.[83]
On July 10, 2017, according to documents obtained by Al Arabiya, Qatar agreed to quit supporting the Muslim Brotherhood. In order to avoid undermining relations with the Gulf, it also removed non-citizens from Qatar and refused to provide shelter to anyone from a GCC nation.[84]
Qatar claims that "since 2017, Qatar feels it has been the victim of a media attack orchestrated by Abu Dhabi, with false documents and fake news."[85][86] The Qatari Government stated that they were being "exclusively criticised and attacked" by Belgian authorities and conveyed disappointment that the Belgian government "made no effort to engage with our government to establish the facts".[87]
In January 2021 the United States, represented by the United States Department of Defense, awarded Sheikh Mohammed bin Abdulrahman bin Jassim Al Thani with the Department of Defense Medal for Distinguished Public Service, one of the highest honors bestowed by the US to officials. The then US National Security Adviser Robert C. O'Brien gave the medal to the Ambassador of Qatar to the US Sheikh Meshaal bin Hamad Al Thani, on behalf of Sheikh Mohammed bin Abdulrahman bin Jassim Al Thani.
This award was in recognition of his exemplary diplomatic efforts to strengthen relations between the State of Qatar and the United States, to support and advance peace efforts in Afghanistan (including the signing of the US–Taliban peace deal on February 29, 2020, as well as the launch of the Afghan peace process on September 12, 2020), to promote stability and prosperity in the Middle East North Africa region, and to resolve the Gulf Crisis through diplomacy.[88]
Qatar mediated a deal between the United States and Iran, which in September 2023 saw the release of five prisoners in each country and the unfreezing of US$6 billion of Iranian funds, which had been frozen due to sanctions imposed by the U.S.[89][90] The U.S. citizens were flown to Doha and greeted by U.S. ambassador to Qatar Timmy T. Davis[91] and Qatar Airways CEO Akbar Al Baker[92] before boarding a plane to Washington, D.C..[93] U.S. President Biden thanked Sheik Tamim and Qatari officials for their role in the mediation as well as establishing a "Humantarian channel" for Iran.[94] The US$6 billion were released to banks in Doha [93] under the condition that Iran could use the funds only for humanitarian purposes.[90]
Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa bin Hamad bin Abdullah bin Jassim bin Mohammed Al Thani is a member of the ruling Al Thani Qatari royal family. He was the ruling Emir of Qatar from 1995 until 2013 when he abdicated the throne, handing power to his fourth son Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani who was born to his second spouse, Moza bint Nassir. The Qatari government refers to him as the Father Emir.
Sheikh Khalifa bin Hamad bin Abdullah bin Jassim bin Mohammed Al Thani was the Emir of Qatar from 27 February 1972 until he was deposed by his son Hamad bin Khalifa in a coup on 27 June 1995.
The Consultative Assembly is the legislative body of the State of Qatar, with 45 members. Following the 2021 Qatari general election, it has 30 elected and 15 appointed members. The body can only question the prime minister, who is appointed by the Emir of Qatar, on his policies if two-thirds of the members agree, which is unlikely given that one-third of the members are appointed by the Emir.
Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani is Emir of Qatar, reigning since 2013.
Qatar, officially the State of Qatar, is a country in West Asia. It occupies the Qatar Peninsula on the northeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula in the Middle East; it shares its sole land border with Saudi Arabia to the south, with the rest of its territory surrounded by the Persian Gulf. The Gulf of Bahrain, an inlet of the Persian Gulf, separates Qatar from nearby Bahrain. The capital is Doha, home to over 80% of the country's inhabitants. Most of the land area is made up of flat, low-lying desert.
Sheikh Hamad bin Jassim bin Jaber bin Mohammed bin Thani Al Thani, who was also known informally by his initials HBJ, is a Qatari politician. He was the Prime Minister of Qatar from 3 April 2007 to 26 June 2013, and foreign minister from 11 January 1992 to 26 June 2013.
The Permanent Population Committee (PPC) (Arabic: اللجنة الدائمة للسكان) is a national authority in the state of Qatar whose mission is to realize the aptness of population requirements to sustainable development. To do so, PPC bases its action on Islamic Sharia principles and communal values and traditions in line with the political foundations of the Qatar Permanent Constitution, the National Vision, the relevant Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf (GCC) Population Policies and other related regional and international guidelines. The PPC is charged with the responsibility for the implementation of the outcomes identified by the general framework of the GCC population strategy adopted by the GCC Supreme Council during its Nineteenth Session, held in Abu Dhabi UAE in 1998. This strategy prompted each member state to establish a higher population committee responsible for developing national population policies. Accordingly, the PPC was established by the Council of Ministers decision number (24) in 2004 with defined responsibilities and committee membership. Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani, the Deputy Emir and Heir Apparent, endorsed the decision.
The Qatar Law Forum of Global Leaders in Law is a non-profit institution established under the patronage of the Government of Qatar with the purpose of bringing together prominent members of the global legal community, in addition to senior figures in the fields of economics, and politics. The inaugural Law Forum was held in Doha from 29–31 May 2009.
Qatar and the United Arab Emirates share a naval border and are part of the Arabic-speaking Persian Gulf region. They are both members of the GCC.
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs is the ministry responsible for the Qatar's foreign relations. It is led by the minister of foreign affairs, currently Mohammed bin Abdulrahman Al Thani, who serves as the nation's principal representative abroad.
Sheikh Mohammed bin Abdulrahman bin Jassim bin Jabr Al Thani is a Qatari diplomat, economist, and politician who has been serving as the Prime Minister of Qatar since 7 March 2023 and Minister of Foreign Affairs since 2016. He has also been serving as Chairman of the Qatar Fund for Development (QFFD) since 2014, and is a member of Qatar's Supreme Council for Economic Affairs and Investments (SCEAI) since 2014.
Iran–Qatar relations refer to the bilateral relations between the Islamic Republic of Iran and the State of Qatar. Iran has an embassy in Doha while Qatar has an embassy in Tehran. Qatar and Iran have close ties.
The Kingdom of Morocco and the State of Qatar formed diplomatic relations in 1972. There is substantial economic cooperation between the two countries, with Qatar being one of the largest foreign investors in Morocco. A $2 billion joint venture between Qatar's sovereign wealth fund and Morocco was established in 2011.
Kazakhstan–Qatar relations are the bilateral relations between the Republic of Kazakhstan and the State of Qatar. Diplomatic relations were established in 1993. Kazakhstan has an embassy in Doha. Qatar has an embassy in Astana.
The 1996 Qatari coup d'état attempt was an attempted coup in Qatar against Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani that was foiled on the night of February 14, 1996, less than one year into Hamad bin Khalifa's reign. Qatari intelligence termed the coup attempt as "Operation Abu Ali".
Brazil–Qatar relations are the bilateral relations between Brazil and Qatar. Diplomatic relations were formed in 1974.
China – Qatar relations are the bilateral relations between the People's Republic of China and the State of Qatar. China has an embassy in Doha, while Qatar has an embassy in Beijing. With diplomatic relations first formed in 1988, Qatar is a strategic ally of China, and the two countries maintain a strong relationship.
Jordan – Qatar relations are the bilateral relations between the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan and the State of Qatar. Diplomatic relations were established in 1972. Jordan has an embassy in Doha. Qatar also has an embassy in Amman.
Aisha Bint Yousuf al-Mannai is a Qatari academic and politician. In 2017 she was one of four women appointed to the Consultative Assembly, becoming one of the country's first female parliamentarians.
↑ "Constitution of Qatar". According to Article 1: Qatar is an independent Arab country. Islam is its religion and Sharia law is the main source of its legislation.
↑ Conclusions and Recommendations: Qatar (Report). UN Committee Against Torture. 25 July 2006. U.N. Doc. CAT/C/QAT/CO/1. Retrieved 9 January 2012. "Certain provisions of the Criminal Code allow punishments such as flogging and stoning to be imposed as criminal sanctions by judicial and administrative authorities. These practices constitute a breach of the obligations imposed by the Convention. The Committee notes with interest that authorities are presently considering amendments to the Prison Act that would abolish flogging." (Par. 12)
↑ Pattisson, Pete (25 September 2013). "Revealed: Qatar's World Cup 'slaves'". The Guardian. Retrieved 26 September 2013. So entrenched is this exploitation that the Nepalese ambassador to Qatar, Maya Kumari Sharma, recently described the emirate as an "open jail".
↑ Abdelmoula, Ezzeddine (2015). Al Jazeera and Democratization: The Rise of the Arab Public Sphere. Routledge. p.81. ISBN978-1138855472. While ordinary Arabs and intellectuals received Al Jazeera as 'a gift', since it provided them with access to uncensored news broadcasts in Arabic [...] the governments in most Arab countries reacted with visible hostility
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