The Sukkalmah Dynasty (c. 1900-1500 BCE), also Epartid Dynasty after the founder Eparti/Ebarat, [5] [6] was an early dynasty of West Asia in the ancient region of Elam, to the southeast of Babylonia. It corresponds to the latest part of the Old Elamite period (dated c. 2700-1600 BC).
The Sukkalmah dynasty followed the Shimashki Dynasty (c. 2200-1900 BCE). [7] [8] The name of the dynasty comes from the name Sukkalmah meaning "Grand Regent", the title used by Elamite rulers. [7]
Numerous cuneiform documents and inscriptions remain from this period, particularly from the area of Susa, making the Sukkalmah period one of the best documented in Elamite history. [7]
Sukkalmah was a Sumerian title first attested in the Pre-Sargonic texts from Girsu, where it seems to have had the meaning of "prime minister" or "grand vizier." [9] The title was well-attested under the powerful Ur III state, where it remained associated with Girsu and nearby Lagash. The Sukkalmahs of Lagash held effective control over the entire ma-da or buffer zone to the north and east of the Ur III core territory, and thus held authority over Susa. [10] The Sukkalmah Arad-Nanna held the title of shagina or military governor of Pashime on the southern coast of Iran, indicating that the influence of the Neo-Sumerian Sukkalmahs could extend quite deep into Elamite territory. [11] The later adoption of the title Sukkalmah by the Elamites probably reflects the considerable political influence that the Neo-Sumerian Sukkalmahs had on Susiana and Elam, and may have also been favored due to similarity between the Sumerian sukkal and the Elamite title sunkir or sukkir meaning "king". [12]
The founder of the dynasty was a ruler named Shilhaha, who described himself as "the chosen son of Ebarat", who may have been the same as King Ebarti mentioned as the 9th King of the Shimashki Dynasty. [8] Ebarat appears as the founder of the dynasty according to building inscriptions, but later kings rather seem to refer to Shilhaha in their filiation claims. [5]
The dynasty was roughly contemporary with the Old Assyrian period, and the Old Babylonian period in Mesopotamia. During this time, Susa was under Elamite control, but Akkadian-speaking Mesopotamian states such as Larsa and Isin continually tried to retake the city. Notable Sukkalmah dynasty rulers in Elam during this time include Siruk-tuh/Sirukdukh (c. 1850), who entered into various military coalitions to contain the power of the south Mesopotamian states. Siruk-tuh was the king of Elam when Hammurabi first ruled, [13] he and later kings of the Elamite dynasty were referred to as "great king" and "father" by kings in Syria and Mesopotamia and were the only kings that the Mesopotamian Kings considered to be higher in status than themselves. [14] [15] Siwe-Palar-Khuppak, who for some time was the most powerful person in the area, respectfully addressed as "Father" by Mesopotamian kings such as Zimrilim of Mari, Shamshi-Adad I of Assyria, and even Hammurabi of Babylon. During his reign alone, Elam interfered extensively with Mesopotamian politics, allowing messengers and envoys to travel far west to Emar and Qatna in Syria. [16] His messenger reached Emar and sent his three servants to King Amut-piʾel II of Qatna (1772-1762 BC), and the king of Qatna also sent two messengers to Elam. [17] The Elamite rulers had become increasingly involved in Mesopotamian politics during the Sukkalmah dynasty. In fact, Rim-Sin of Larsa himself was of Elamite descent, notwithstanding his Akkadian name. [18] Kudur-Nahhunte, who plundered the temples of southern Mesopotamia. But Elamite influence in southern Mesopotamia did not last. Around 1760 BC, Hammurabi drove out the Elamites, overthrew Rim-Sin of Larsa, and established a Babylonian Empire in Mesopotamia. Little is known about the later part of this dynasty, since sources again become sparse with the Kassite rule of Babylon (from c. 1595).
The names of Ebarat and Shilhaha, the founding members of the Sukkalmah Dynasty, have been found on the Gunagi silver vessels, inscribed in the Linear Elamite script. The Gunagi vessels were discovered relatively recently, in 2004. French archaeologist François Desset identified repetitive sign sequences in the beginning of the Gunagi inscriptions, and guessed they were names of Kings, in a manner somewhat similar to Grotefend's decipherment of Old Persian cuneiform in 1802-1815. [19] Using the small set of letters identified in 1905-1912, the number of symbols in each sequence taken as syllables, and in one instance the repetition of a symbol, Desset was able to identify the only two contemporary historical rulers that matched these conditions: Shilhaha and Ebarat, the two earliest kings of the Sukkalmah Dynasty. [20] Another set of signs matched the well-known God of the period: Napirisha: [20] [21]
Name | Portrait | Title | Born-Died | Entered office | Left office | Family Relations | Note | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sukkalmah or Epartid dynasty, [24] c. 1970–c. 1500 BC | |||||||||
1 | Eparti II | king of Anshan & Susa | ?–? | c. 1973 BC | ? | Married with a daughter of Iddin-Dagan king of Isin in 1973 BC. [25] | cont. Iddin-Dagan king of Isin | ||
2 | Shilhaha | Sukkalmah | ?–? | ? | ? | "chosen son of Ebarat" [26] | |||
3 | Kuk-Nashur I | Sukkalmah | ?–? | ? | ? | son (ruhushak) [27] of Shilhaha | |||
4 | Atta-hushu | Sukkal and Ippir of Susa, Shepherd of the people of Susa, Shepherd of Inshushinak | ?–after 1894 BC | ?1928 BC | after 1894 BC | son of Kuk-Nashur I (?) | |||
5 | Tetep-Mada | Shepherd of the people of Susa | ?–? | after c. 1890 BC | ? | son of Kuk-Nashur I (?) | |||
6 | Palar-Ishshan | Sukkalmah | ?–? | ? | ? | ? | |||
7 | Kuk-Sanit | ?–? | ? | ? | son of Palar-Ishshan (?) | ||||
8 | Kuk-Kirwash | Sukkalmah, Sukkal of Elam and Simashki and Susa | ?–? | ? | ? | son of Lan-Kuku & nephew of Palar-Ishshan | |||
9 | Tem-Sanit | ?–? | ? | ? | son of Kuk-Kirwash | ||||
10 | Kuk-Nahhunte | ?–? | ? | son of Kuk-Kirwash | |||||
11 | Kuk-Nashur II | Sukkalmah, Sukkal of Elam, Sukkal of Elam and Simashki and Susa | ?–? | ? | ? | son of Kuk-Nahhunte (?) | |||
12 | Shirukduh | Sukkalmah | ?–? | c. 1790 BC | ? | ? | cont. Shamshi-Adad I king of Assyria | ||
13 | Shimut-Wartash I | ?–? | ? | ? | son of Shirukduh | ||||
14 | Siwe-Palar-Hupak | Sukkalmah, Sukkal of Susa, Prince of Elam | ?–? | before 1765 BC | after 1765 BC | son of Shirukduh | |||
15 | Kuduzulush I | Sukkalmah, Sukkal of Susa | ?–? | ? | ? | son of Shirukduh | |||
16 | Kutir-Nahhunte I | Sukkalmah | ?–? | c. 1710 BC | ? | son of Kuduzulush I | |||
17 | Atta-Merra-Halki | ?–? | ? | ? | son of Kuduzulush I (?) | ||||
18 | Tata II | Sukkal | ?–? | ? | ? | brother of Atta-Merra-Halki | |||
19 | Lila-Irtash | ?–? | ? | ? | son of Kuduzulush I | ||||
20 | Temti-Agun | Sukkalmah, Sukkal of Susa | ?–? | ? | ? | son of Kutir-Nahhunte I | |||
21 | Kutir-Shilhaha | Sukkalmah, Sukkal | ?–? | ? | ? | son of Temti-Agun | |||
22 | Kuk-Nashur III | Sukkal of Elam, Sukkal of Susa | ?–? | before 1646 BC | after 1646 BC | son of Kutir-Shilhaha | |||
23 | Temti-Raptash | ?–? | ? | ? | son of Kutir-Shilhaha | ||||
24 | Shimut-Wartash II | ?–? | ? | ? | son of Kuk-Nashur III | ||||
25 | Shirtuh | King of Susa | ?–? | ? | ? | son of Kuk-Nashur III | |||
26 | Kuduzulush II | Sukkalmah, King of Susa | ?–? | ? | ? | son of Shimut-Wartash II | |||
27 | Tan-Uli | Sukkalmah, Sukkal | ?–? | ? | ? | ? | |||
28 | Temti-Halki | Sukkalmah, Sukkal of Elam and Simashki and Susa | ?–? | ? | ? | son of Tan-Uli | |||
29 | Kuk-Nashur IV [28] | Sukkalmah | ?–? | ? | ? | son of Tan-Uli | |||
30 | Kutik-Matlat [29] | ?–? | c. 1500 BC | ? | son of Tan-Uli | ||||
History of Greater Iran |
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Hammurabi, also spelled Hammurapi, was the sixth Amorite king of the Old Babylonian Empire, reigning from c. 1792 to c. 1750 BC. He was preceded by his father, Sin-Muballit, who abdicated due to failing health. During his reign, he conquered the city-states of Larsa, Eshnunna, and Mari. He ousted Ishme-Dagan I, the king of Assyria, and forced his son Mut-Ashkur to pay tribute, bringing almost all of Mesopotamia under Babylonian rule.
Babylonia was an ancient Akkadian-speaking state and cultural area based in the city of Babylon in central-southern Mesopotamia. It emerged as an Akkadian populated but Amorite-ruled state c. 1894 BC. During the reign of Hammurabi and afterwards, Babylonia was retrospectively called "the country of Akkad", a deliberate archaism in reference to the previous glory of the Akkadian Empire. It was often involved in rivalry with the older ethno-linguistically related state of Assyria in the north of Mesopotamia and Elam to the east in Ancient Iran. Babylonia briefly became the major power in the region after Hammurabi created a short-lived empire, succeeding the earlier Akkadian Empire, Third Dynasty of Ur, and Old Assyrian Empire. The Babylonian Empire rapidly fell apart after the death of Hammurabi and reverted to a small kingdom centered around the city of Babylon.
Susa was an ancient city in the lower Zagros Mountains about 250 km (160 mi) east of the Tigris, between the Karkheh and Dez Rivers in modern day Iran. One of the most important cities of the Ancient Near East, Susa served as the capital of Elam and the winter capital of Achaemenid Empire, and remained a strategic centre during the Parthian and Sasanian periods.
The Kassites were people of the ancient Near East, who controlled Babylonia after the fall of the Old Babylonian Empire c. 1531 BC and until c. 1155 BC.
Elam was an ancient civilization centered in the far west and southwest of modern-day Iran, stretching from the lowlands of what is now Khuzestan and Ilam Province as well as a small part of southern Iraq. The modern name Elam stems from the Sumerian transliteration elam(a), along with the later Akkadian elamtu, and the Elamite haltamti. Elamite states were among the leading political forces of the Ancient Near East. In classical literature, Elam was also known as Susiana, a name derived from its capital Susa.
Chedorlaomer, also spelled Kedorlaomer, is a king of Elam mentioned in Genesis 14. Genesis portrays him as allied with three other kings, campaigning against five Canaanite city-states in response to an uprising in the days of Abraham.
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Puzur-Inshushinak, also sometimes thought to read Kutik-Inshushinak in Elamite, was king of Elam, around 2100 BC, and the last from the Awan dynasty according to the Susa kinglist. He mentions his father's name as Šimpi-išhuk, which, being an Elamite name, suggests that Puzur-Inshuhinak himself was Elamite.
Eshnunna was an ancient Sumerian city and city-state in central Mesopotamia 12.6 miles northwest of Tell Agrab and 15 miles northwest of Tell Ishchali. Although situated in the Diyala Valley northwest of Sumer proper, the city nonetheless belonged securely within the Sumerian cultural milieu. It is sometimes, in archaeological papers, called Ashnunnak or Tuplias.
The history of Mesopotamia ranges from the earliest human occupation in the Paleolithic period up to Late antiquity. This history is pieced together from evidence retrieved from archaeological excavations and, after the introduction of writing in the late 4th millennium BC, an increasing amount of historical sources. While in the Paleolithic and early Neolithic periods only parts of Upper Mesopotamia were occupied, the southern alluvium was settled during the late Neolithic period. Mesopotamia has been home to many of the oldest major civilizations, entering history from the Early Bronze Age, for which reason it is often called a cradle of civilization.
Linear Elamite was a writing system used in Elam during the Bronze Age between c. 2300–1850 BCE, and known mainly from a few extant monumental inscriptions. It was used contemporaneously with Elamite cuneiform and records the Elamite language. The French archaeologist François Desset and his colleagues have argued that it is the oldest known purely phonographic writing system, although others, such as the linguist Michael Mäder, have argued that it is partly logographic.
The Awan Dynasty was the first dynasty of Elam of which very little of anything is known today, appearing at the dawn of historical record. The Dynasty corresponds to the early part of the Old Elamite period, it was succeeded by the Shimashki Dynasty and later the Sukkalmah Dynasty. The Elamites were likely major rivals of neighboring Sumer from remotest antiquity; they were said to have been defeated by Enmebaragesi of Kish, who is the earliest archaeologically attested Sumerian king, as well as by a later monarch, Eannatum I of Lagash.
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The Shimashki or Simashki dynasty, was an early dynasty of the ancient region of Elam, to the southeast of Babylonia, in approximately 2100–1900 BCE. A list of twelve kings of Shimashki is found in the Elamite king-list of Susa, which also contains a list of kings of Awan dynasty. It is uncertain how historically accurate the list is, although some of its kings can be corroborated by their appearance in the records of neighboring peoples. The dynasty corresponds to the middle part of the Old Elamite period. It was followed by the Sukkalmah Dynasty. Shimashki was likely near today's Masjed Soleyman.
Napirisha was an Elamite deity from the region of Anshan, and was the main deity of the kingdom from at least the late 3rd millennium BCE. In Elamite, his name means "Great (-ša) God (napir)"; in cuneiform texts, the word is written using the ideogram GAL, which was without a correct interpretation for some time.
Kindattu was the 6th king of the Shimashki Dynasty, in Elam, at the time of the third dynasty of Ur in ancient Lower Mesopotamia.
The Isin-Larsa period is a phase in the history of ancient Mesopotamia, which extends between the end of the Third Dynasty of Ur and the conquest of Mesopotamia by King Hammurabi of Babylon leading to the creation of the First Babylonian dynasty. According to the approximate conventional dating, this period begins in 2025 BCE and ended in 1763 BCE. It constitutes the first part of the Old Babylonian period, the second part being the period of domination of the first dynasty of Babylon, which ends with the Sack of Babylon in 1595 BCE and the rise of the Kassites.
The Shutrukid dynasty was a dynasty of the Elamite empire, in modern Iran. Under the Shutrukids, Elam reached a height in power.
Shilhaha was an Elamite ruler of the 20th century BC. He was first to be attested as sukkalmah in Elam, effectively founding the Sukkalmah Dynasty. At least 11 rulers of this dynasty used the phrase “descendant of Šilhaha” (ruhušak) in their titles as evidence of their legitimacy. Inscriptions on a bronze “gunagi” vessel and on Atta-Hušu cylindroid show that he was contemporary of Ebarat II, one of the last kings of Shimashki.