Amanita rubrovolvata | |
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Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Fungi |
Division: | Basidiomycota |
Class: | Agaricomycetes |
Order: | Agaricales |
Family: | Amanitaceae |
Genus: | Amanita |
Species: | A. rubrovolvata |
Binomial name | |
Amanita rubrovolvata | |
Synonyms [1] | |
Amplariella rubrovolvata(S. Imai) E.-J. Gilbert |
Amanita rubrovolvata | |
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Gills on hymenium | |
Cap is convex | |
Hymenium is free | |
Stipe has a ring and volva | |
Spore print is white to cream | |
Ecology is mycorrhizal | |
Edibility is unknown |
Amanita rubrovolvata, commonly known as the red volva amanita, is a species of fungus in the family Amanitaceae. The fungus produces small to medium-sized mushrooms, with reddish-orange caps up to 6.5 millimetres (1⁄4 inch) wide. The stems are up to 10 cm (4 in) tall, cream-coloured above the ring and cream to yellowish below it. The stem ends in a roughly spherical bulb at the base, which is covered with bright orange patches.
First described scientifically by the Japanese mycologist Sanshi Imai in 1939, the fungus is widely distributed in eastern Asia. Neither its edibility nor toxicity have been established, but it is suspected to be associated with neurological anomalies. Several molecular studies have confirmed the mushroom's classification in the subgenus Amanita of the genus Amanita , along with closely related species such as A. muscaria .
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Phylogeny of A. rubrovolvata and related species based on ribosomal DNA sequences. [2] |
The species was first described scientifically by Japanese mycologist Sanshi Imai in 1939, based on various collections made in Japan during 1933–38. Imai designated the Japanese name for mushroom as Hime-beni-tengutake (ヒメベニテングタケ). [3] According to the online taxonomical database MycoBank, the name Amplariella rubrovolvata, proposed by French mycologist Jean-Edouard Gilbert in 1941, [4] is a synonym; [1] the generic name Amplariella has since been subsumed into Amanita . [5]
A. rubrovolvata is classified in the subgenus Amanita of the genus Amanita, according to the systems proposed by Cornelis Bas (1969), [6] and Rolf Singer (1986). [7] It was one of 49 Amanita species included in a 1998 molecular phylogenetic analysis intended to help clarify natural groups and phylogenetic relationships within the genus. In the cladogram, A. rubrovolvata is on a branch next to a cluster of species including A. pantherina var. lutea, A. gemmata , A. farinosa , and A. sinensis . [2] These results were comparable to those published in later phylogenetic analyses (1999, 2004, 2010) that have included A. rubrovolata as part of a larger dataset. [8] [9] [10]
The specific epithet rubrovolvata is derived from the Latin words ruber ("red"), and the adjective volvatus ("closely sheathed"). [11] Amanita authority Rodham E. Tulloss has suggested "red volva Amanita" as an appropriate common name. [12]
The cap of A. rubrovolvata is 2–6.5 millimetres (1⁄16–1⁄4 inch) wide, convex to flattened, sometimes with a slight umbo. They are dark red to reddish-orange, becoming a paler orange to yellowish at the margin. The cap surface is densely covered with red to orange to yellow, powdery to granular remnants of the volva. The cap margin is grooved—with the grooves extending to between 30% and 60% of the radius—and does not have partial veil remnants hanging along the cap margin. The flesh of the mushroom is white to yellow, or reddish immediately beneath the cap cuticle. The white gills are free from attachment to the stem and are 3 to 6 mm (1⁄8 to 1⁄4 in) broad. The lamellulae (short gills that do not extend fully from the cap edge to the stem) are truncate, and typically range in length between 15 and 50% of the length of the gills. [12] [13]
The stem is 50–100 mm (2–4 in) by 5–10 mm (1⁄4–3⁄8 in) thick, roughly cylindrical or slightly larger upwards, with a surface that is cream above the ring and cream to yellowish below. The bulb at the base of the stem is roughly spherical, and 1–2 cm (1⁄2–3⁄4 in) wide, with its upper part covered with red, orange to yellow woolly to powdery remnants of the volva. The volva remains in mature specimens as a ring around the upper part of the stem bulb. The ring is membranous, persistent, with an upper surface that is white and a lower surface having a yellowish tinge and an edge that is red to orange. [12]
A. rubrovolvata produces a white to cream-colored spore print. The spores are spherical or nearly so, and typically measure 7.5–9.0 by 7.0–8.5 µm. [12] They are inamyloid, meaning that they will not absorb iodine stain from Melzer's reagent. The basidia (spore-bearing cells in the hymenium) are club-shaped, four-spored (rarely two-spored), and measure 25–44 by 10–14 µm. The sterigmata (slender extensions at the basidial tips that attach to the spores) are 3–4 µm long, and clamps are not found on the bases of basidia. [14]
Sanmee and colleagues mention that the eastern North American species A. frostiana resembles A. rubrovoltata slightly, but the former has short grooves at the edge of a yellowish-orange cap, slightly larger spores, a yellow volva, and clamps at the basidial bases. [14] Roger Heim reported A. frostiana as occurring in Thailand, [15] but this was probably a misidentification of A. rubrovolvata. [14] [16]
A. rubrovoltata mushrooms grow in groups on the ground. Amanita species form mycorrhizal relationships with trees. This is a mutually beneficial relationship where the hyphae of the fungus grow around the roots of trees, enabling the fungus to receive moisture, protection and nutritive byproducts of the tree, and affording the tree greater access to soil nutrients. [17] The original Japanese collections were made in forests dominated by Japanese beech (Fagus crenata), [3] but it has also been found growing near Quercus luecotrichophora , Rhododendron arboreum , and Myrica esculenta in India, [13] in Castanopsis - Schima forest in Nepal, [18] and in Castanopsis indica plantations in the Himalayas. [18]
The species occurs in China, northern India, [19] Nepal, [18] Gharwal Himalaya, [13] South Korea, [20] and countries of Southeast Asia (for example, Thailand). [14] The southern limit of the distribution extends to southern Malay Peninsula. [21]
Although the edibility or toxicity of the mushroom is not known with certainty, it has been reported to cause "neurological symptoms" in mice, as well as increased levels of blood glucose and decreased blood urea nitrogen. [22] Other biochemical changes reported in mice, after peritoneal injection of fruit body extract, include decreases in the activity of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase and reduced levels of liver glycogen. In these experiments, values returned to normal six hours after initial injection, suggesting that the poisoning was not serious, and did not affect liver and kidney performance. [23]
Amanita gemmata, commonly known as the gemmed amanita or the jonquil amanita, is an agaric mushroom of the family Amanitaceae and genus Amanita. The fruit body has a cap that is a dull to golden shade of yellow, and typically 2.5–12 centimetres in diameter. The cap surface is sticky when moist, and characterized by white warts, which are easily detached. It is initially convex, and flattens out when mature. The flesh is white and does not change colour when cut. The gills are white and closely spaced. The stem is pale yellow, and measures 4–12 cm long by 0.5–1.9 cm thick. The partial veil that covers the young fruit body turns into the ring on the stem at maturity. The spore print is white. It resembles numerous other species.
Amanita brunnescens, also known as the brown American star-footed amanita or cleft-footed amanita is a native North American mushroom of the large genus Amanita. It differs from A. phalloides by its fragile volva and tendency to bruise brown.
Amanita arocheae, also known as the Latin American death cap, is a mushroom of the large genus Amanita, which occurs in Colombia, Central America and South America. Deadly poisonous, it is a member of section Phalloideae and related to the death cap, A. phalloides.
The European white egg, bearded amanita or European egg amidella, is a species of fungus of the genus Amanita in the family Amanitaceae. It is a large, white-colored fungus, often tinged with cream. Native to Europe, it is found on plains as well as mountains in the Mediterranean region. It is similar to some deadly poisonous species.
Amanita persicina, commonly known as the peach-colored fly agaric, is a basidiomycete fungus of the genus Amanita with a peach-colored center. Until c. 2015, the fungus was believed to be a variety of A. muscaria.
Amanita flavoconia, commonly known as yellow patches, yellow wart, orange amanita, yellow-dust amanita or the American yellow dust amanita, is a species of mushroom in the family Amanitaceae. It has an orangish-yellow cap with yellowish-orange patches or warts, a yellowish-orange annulus, and a white to orange stem. Common and widespread throughout eastern North America, A. flavoconia grows on the ground in broad-leaved and mixed forests, especially in mycorrhizal association with hemlock.
Amanita abrupta, commonly known as the American abrupt-bulbed amanita or the American abrupt-bulbed lepidella, is a possibly toxic species of fungus in the family Amanitaceae. Named for the characteristic shape of its fruit bodies, this white Amanita has a slender stem, a cap covered with conical white warts, and an "abruptly enlarged" swollen base. This terrestrial species grows in mixed woods in eastern North America and eastern Asia, where it is thought to exist in a mycorrhizal relationship with a variety of both coniferous and deciduous tree species.
Amanita bisporigera is a deadly poisonous species of fungus in the family Amanitaceae. It is commonly known as the eastern destroying angel amanita, the eastern North American destroying angel or just as the destroying angel, although the fungus shares this latter name with three other lethal white Amanita species, A. ocreata, A. verna and A. virosa. The mushroom has a smooth white cap that can reach up to 10 centimetres across and a stipe up to 14 cm tall with a white skirt-like ring near the top. The bulbous stipe base is covered with a membranous sac-like volva. The white gills are free from attachment to the stalk and crowded closely together. As the species name suggests, A. bisporigera typically bears two spores on the basidia, although this characteristic is not immutable. A. bisporigera closely resembles a few other white amanitas, including the equally deadly A. virosa and A. verna.
Amanita aestivalis, commonly known as the white American star-footed amanita, is a species of fungus in the mushroom family Amanitaceae. The cap of the white fruit body is 5 to 8.5 centimetres in diameter. It sits atop a stem that is 8.5 to 16 cm long. The entire fruit body will slowly stain a reddish-brown color in response to bruising. A. aestivalis may be a synonym for A. brunnescens, and may be confused with several other white-bodied amanitas. The fungus is distributed in eastern North America.
Amanita exitialis, also known as the Guangzhou destroying angel, is a mushroom of the large genus Amanita. It is distributed in eastern Asia, and probably also in India where it has been misidentified as A. verna. Deadly poisonous, it is a member of section Phalloideae and related to the death cap A. phalloides. The fruit bodies (mushrooms) are white, small to medium-sized with caps up to 7 cm (2.8 in) in diameter, a somewhat friable ring and a firm volva. Unlike most agaric mushrooms which typically have four-spored basidia, the basidia of A. exitialis are almost entirely two-spored. Eight people were fatally poisoned in China after consuming the mushroom in 2000, and another 20 have been fatally poisoned since that incident. Molecular analysis shows that the species has a close phylogenetic relationship with three other toxic white Amanitas: A. subjunquillea var. alba, A. virosa and A. bisporigera.
Amanita australis is a species of fungus in the family Amanitaceae. It produces small- to medium-sized fruit bodies, with brown caps up to 9 centimetres in diameter covered with pyramidal warts. The gills on the underside of the cap are white, closely crowded together, and free from attachment to the stem. The stem, up to 9 cm long, has a ring and a bulbous base. The mushroom may be confused with another endemic New Zealand species, A. nothofagi, but can be distinguished by differences in microscopic characteristics.
Amanita nothofagi is a species of fungus in the family Amanitaceae. Endemic to New Zealand, the species was first described by mycologist Greta Stevenson in 1962. The fruit bodies have dark brown caps that are up to 13 cm (5.1 in) in diameter and covered with patches of soft greyish-brown scales or warts. The gills underneath the cap are crowded together, free from attachment to the stem, and white, becoming tinged with yellow in age. The stem of the mushroom is 4–14 cm (1.6–5.5 in) long by 0.5–2.5 cm (0.2–1.0 in) thick, and has a ring. The spore print is white, and individual spores are spherical to ellipsoid, measuring 7.5–9 by 7.5–9 micrometres. The mushroom may be confused with another New Zealand species, A. australis, but can be distinguished by certain characteristics. Amanita nothofagi is a mycorrhizal species, and grows in association with native New Zealand trees such as Southern Beech.
Amanita jacksonii, also known as Jackson's slender amanita, American Slender Caesar, and Eastern Caesar's Amanita, is a North American species of fungus in the family Amanitaceae. It is a reddish-orange colored mushroom species which can be identified by its yellow gills, large, white, sacklike volva.
Amanita atkinsoniana, also known as the Atkinson's amanita, is a species of fungus in the family Amanitaceae. The fruit body is white to brownish, with caps up to 12.5 centimetres in diameter, and stems up to 20 cm long. The surface of the cap is covered with brownish conical warts.
Amanita crocea, the saffron ringless amanita, is a species of Amanita widely distributed in Europe. It is not recommended for consumption due to its similarity to poisonous species of the genus.
Amanita ceciliae, commonly called snakeskin grisette, strangulated amanita, and the Cecilia's ringless amanita, is a basidiomycete fungus in the genus Amanita. First described in 1854 by Miles Joseph Berkeley and Christopher Edmund Broome, it was given its current name by Cornelis Bas in 1984. It is characterized by bearing a large fruit body with a brown cap 5–12 cm (2.0–4.7 in) across. The cap has charcoal-grey patches, which are easily removable. The stipe is 7–18 cm (2.8–7.1 in) long, white in colour, and there is no ring on it. It is slightly tapered to the top, and has irregular cottony bands girdling the base. The universal veil is grey. Spores are white, spherical in shape, non-amyloid, and measure 10.2–11.7 micrometres. The mushrooms are considered edible, but field guides typically advise caution in selecting them for consumption, due to risks of confusion with similar toxic species. A. ceciliae is found in woods throughout Europe and North America, where it fruits during summer and autumn.
Amanita albocreata, also called the ringless panther or the ringless panther amanita, is a species of fungus in the family Amanitaceae. It was discovered in 1944, by William Murrill. It is commonly found in northeastern United States and southeastern Canada and elsewhere in North America. This species, that grows about 5 to 15 centimeters in length, is doubted to be fatally toxic. It normally grows between the rainy months of June and August.
Amanita frostiana, also known as Frost's amanita, is a small yellow-to-red fungus found in eastern North America.
Amanita basii is a mushroom of the family Amanitaceae.