Blackcurrant production in the United States

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Blackcurrant fruit Ribes nigrum a1.JPG
Blackcurrant fruit

Blackcurrant production in the United States is relatively limited. The blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum) was introduced by English settlers at the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629 and was cultivated on some scale, particularly in New York. The plant acts as a host for the white pine blister rust that threatened the timber industry. In 1911, the federal government banned the cultivation, sale, and transport of blackcurrants to protect the white pine. Government programs systematically destroyed blackcurrant plants by chemical spraying.

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The federal ban was lifted in 1966, though many states maintained their own bans. Research showed that blackcurrants could be safely grown some distance from white pines and this, together with the development of rust-immune varieties and new fungicides, led to most states lifting their bans by 2003. Blackcurrants are now grown commercially in the Northeastern United States and the Pacific Northwest. Because of the long period of restrictions, blackcurrants are not popular in the United States, and one researcher has estimated that only 0.1% of Americans have eaten one.

History

A wild blackcurrant Black currant in the mountains of Zakamensky district of Buryatia, Russia.jpg
A wild blackcurrant

The blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum) is a woody deciduous shrub native to Europe and part of the genus Ribes , together with other currants (e.g. red and white currants) and the gooseberry. Its stiff upright branches ("canes") bear flowers and small, black berries. [1] The plant was introduced to North America by English settlers at the Massachusetts Bay Colony from 1629 and by the late 19th century there were some 7,400 acres (3,000 hectares) of Ribes in cultivation. [2] [3] [4] New York was a center of Ribes production, accounting for 3,300,000 US dry quarts (3,600,000 L) of fruit production out of 7,600,000 US dry quarts (8,400,000 L) nationwide. [2] The blackcurrant was not widely popular, being eclipsed by the red and white currants, and in 1925 their taste was described in The Small Fruits of New York as "a stinking and somewhat loathing savour". [2]

White pine blister rust on a Ribes plant Cronartium ribicola2.jpg
White pine blister rust on a Ribes plant

The blackcurrant, in common with other Ribes, is a telial (secondary) host of the white pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola). The aecial (primary) hosts of the rust are the five-needle pines, including the eastern white pine (Pinus strobus). [5] The Ribes are largely unaffected by the rust but it significantly affects the growth of, and can kill, pines. [6] [5] The blackcurrant, of all the Ribes species, is particularly susceptible to the rust. [4]

In the early 1900s there were few fungicides available to treat the rust, which threatened the American lumber industry. [5] In response to concerns the federal government banned the cultivation, sale and transport of blackcurrants in 1911 and funded a program of eradication by chemical spraying, later often carried out by members of the Civilian Conservation Corps. [3] [4] [7]

The scientific advice changed over the following decades and it is now believed that the white pine is affected by the rust only where blackcurrants are grown in close proximity in moist conditions. [8] The federal ban on cultivation was lifted in 1966, with the individual states left to decide on management of the blackcurrant. [7] Varieties of blackcurrant immune to white pine rust became available in the 1970s. Some of these were grown commercially in New York and were tolerated by conservation officials, though they were still legally banned. [8] The ban in New York was lifted in mid-2002 after a campaign by a farmer who wanted to expand cultivation of the fruit. [8] Though the white pine is now rarely used for lumber, the relaxation of the ban led to protests by some in the forestry industry. [5]

Current restrictions

By 2003 restrictions on Ribes cultivation had been lifted across most of the states, though some bans remain, particularly on the blackcurrant. [4] [8] State laws are enforced with varying degrees of efficiency and enthusiasm; in some states, officials effectively ignore the ban. [4]

Nationally, a prohibition on the import of blackcurrant plants from Northern Ireland, the Isle of Man, the Channel Islands and several EU countries remains. A special permit is required to import it from Chile. [9]

Current cultivation and use

A cultivated blackcurrant Blackcurrant 1.jpg
A cultivated blackcurrant
Purple Skittles are blackcurrant flavored in the United Kingdom (Skittles) a handful.JPG
Purple Skittles are blackcurrant flavored in the United Kingdom

The cultivation of Ribes was adversely affected by the long period of restrictions and current agricultural use is hampered by the remaining bans. [4] The plant was rarely seen in the United States outside of bushes in back yards until the national ban was lifted; by 2019 it was grown commercially in the Northeastern United States and the Pacific Northwest. [2] [9] The United States Department of Agriculture does not keep records of commercial blackcurrant production but lists them as an introduced species in the following areas: [3] [10]

The fruit is not used widely in the United States, except for the liqueur crème de cassis. [2] This is because of the difficulty in obtaining the fruit during its period of restriction. Danny L. Barney, a professor of horticulture at the University of Idaho, said in 2009: "People simply forgot about them ... there's ignorance about what they are, and there are so many fruits available from all over the world at the supermarket". [2] Marvin Pritts, a professor of horticulture at Cornell University, asserts that less than 0.1% of Americans have likely ever eaten a blackcurrant. [3]

Their rarity in the United States contrasts with the situation in Europe, which produces 99.1% of the world's blackcurrant crop, and where blackcurrant is a popular flavor of squash (cordial). Two thirds of European blackcurrant production is destined for the squash industry. [3] In the United Kingdom, where blackcurrant squash gained popularity during World War II as a source of vitamin C, the situation is even more pronounced – 90% of all British blackcurrant production is sold to the Ribena company. [3] [11] [12] There were few commercial pine tree plantations in Europe and the blackcurrant was a historically important crop; Ribes has never been banned in European states. [3] Because of the effects of the ban, purple Skittles are grape-flavored in the United States, whereas they are blackcurrant-flavored in the United Kingdom and some European countries. [13]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rust (fungus)</span> Order of fungi

Rusts are plant diseases caused by pathogenic fungi of the order Pucciniales.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ribena</span> Blackcurrant-based drink

Ribena is a brand of blackcurrant-based soft drink, and fruit drink concentrate designed to be mixed with water. It is available in bottles, cans and multi-packs. Originally of British origin, it was produced by British pharmaceutical company GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) until 2013, when the brand was sold to Japanese beverage conglomerate Suntory.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gooseberry</span> Species of Ribes cultivated for its edible fruit

Gooseberry is a common name for many species of Ribes, as well as a large number of plants of similar appearance. The berries of those in the genus Ribes are edible and may be green, orange, red, purple, yellow, white, or black.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blackcurrant</span> Species of flowering plant in the gooseberry family Grossulariaceae

The blackcurrant, also known as black currant or cassis, is a deciduous shrub in the family Grossulariaceae grown for its edible berries. It is native to temperate parts of central and northern Europe and northern Asia, where it prefers damp fertile soils. It is widely cultivated both commercially and domestically.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zante currant</span> Variety of grape

Zante currants, Corinth raisins, Corinthian raisins or outside the United States simply currants, are raisins of the small, sweet, seedless grape cultivar Black Corinth. The name comes from the Anglo-French phrase "raisins de Corinthe" and the Ionian island of Zakynthos (Zante), which was once the major producer and exporter. It is not related to black, red or white currants, which are berries of shrubs in the genus Ribes and not usually prepared in dried form.

<i>Ribes</i> Genus of flowering plants in the order Saxifragales

Ribes is a genus of about 200 known species of flowering plants, most of them native to the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. The various species are known as currants or gooseberries, and some are cultivated for their edible fruit or as ornamental plants. Ribes is the only genus in the family Grossulariaceae.

<i>Pinus strobus</i> Species of conifer in the pine family Pinaceae

Pinus strobus, commonly called the eastern white pine, northern white pine, white pine, Weymouth pine (British), and soft pine is a large pine native to eastern North America. It occurs from Newfoundland, Canada, west through the Great Lakes region to southeastern Manitoba and Minnesota, United States, and south along the Appalachian Mountains and upper Piedmont to northernmost Georgia and perhaps very rarely in some of the higher elevations in northeastern Alabama. It is considered rare in Indiana.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Redcurrant</span> Species of flowering plant in the gooseberry family Grossulariaceae

The redcurrant or red currant is a member of the genus Ribes in the gooseberry family. It is native to western Europe. The species is widely cultivated and has escaped into the wild in many regions.

<i>Cronartium ribicola</i> Species of rust fungus

Cronartium ribicola is a species of rust fungus in the family Cronartiaceae that causes the disease white pine blister rust. Other names include: Rouille vésiculeuse du pin blanc pin (French), white pine Blasenrost (German), moho ampolla del pino blanco (Spanish).

<i>Ribes sanguineum</i> Species of flowering plant in the gooseberry family Grossulariaceae

Ribes sanguineum, the flowering currant, redflower currant, red-flowering currant, or red currant is a North American species of flowering plant in the family Grossulariaceae, native to the western United States and Canada.

<i>Cecidophyopsis ribis</i> Species of mite

Cecidophyopsis ribis is an eriophyid mite which is best known for being a plant parasite, a pest of Ribes species, the genus that includes gooseberries and blackcurrants. It is commonly known as the blackcurrant gall mite or big bud mite. It feeds on the plants' buds, forming galls, and transmits a virus which causes blackcurrant reversion disease. The mite is a serious pest of blackcurrant crops in Europe, but rarely on other continents.

Greg Quinn is an American farmer in Staatsburg, New York, who lobbied several NY state senators and assemblypersons and in 2003, was successful in overturning the ban on the commercial cultivation of blackcurrants, enacted by Congress in 1911. blackcurrants, a berry fruit used in juice, jams, candy, yogurt, ice cream, and cereal provide twice the antioxidant ORAC capacity per serving of blueberries, four times the vitamin C content of oranges, and twice the potassium content of bananas. With no supply and no market, Quinn founded his company, CurrantC™, in 2003 and began to grow black currants on his 135-acre (55 ha), farm and Quinn sought to interest consumers and New York farmers in the fruit, which was then being supplied to the United States by Europe usually in the form of preserves. CurrantC™ is now the number one supplier of Currant products in the United States. In addition to farming and teaching at the New York Botanical Garden, Quinn has written eight children's books published by Scholastic Press, including the titles A Gift of a Tree, The Garden in Our Yard, 365 Meditations for Teachers, and books within the Natural Treasure series. He also has written for SKY magazine, Good Housekeeping, and Fine Gardening and has been "The Garden and Nature Guy" on WHUD and other Pamal Broadcasting radio stations, and FOX 5 television, WNYW out of New York City.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jostaberry</span> Berry and plant

The jostaberry is a complex-cross fruit bush in the genus Ribes, involving three original species, the blackcurrant R. nigrum, the North American coastal black gooseberry R. divaricatum, and the European gooseberry R. uva-crispa. It is similar to Ribes × culverwellii, the jochelbeere, which is descended from just two of these species, R. nigrum and R. uva-crispa.

<i>Ribes aureum</i> Species of plant

Ribes aureum, known by the common names golden currant, clove currant, pruterberry and buffalo currant, is a species of flowering plant in the genus Ribes native to North America.

<i>Ribes missouriense</i> Species of plant

Ribes missouriense, the Missouri gooseberry, Missouri currant or wild gooseberry, is a prickly, many-stemmed shrub native to the north-central United States. Scattered populations have been found farther east, most of them very likely escapes from cultivation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White currant</span> Cultivars of Ribes rubrum, a species of flowering plant in the gooseberry family Grossulariaceae

The white currant or whitecurrant is a group of cultivars of the red currant, a species of flowering plant in the family Grossulariaceae, native to Europe.

<i>Ribes americanum</i> Berry and plant

Ribes americanum is a North American species of flowering plant in the gooseberry family known as wild black currant, American black currant, and eastern black currant. It is widespread in much of Canada and the northern United States.

<i>Ribes oxyacanthoides</i> Species of flowering plant

Ribes oxyacanthoides is a species of flowering plant in the gooseberry family known by the common name Canadian gooseberry. Its various subspecies have common names of their own. It is native to North America, where it occurs in Alaska through much of Canada and the western and north-central United States.

<i>Ribes aciculare</i> Species of flowering plant

Ribes aciculare is a species of flowering plant in the currant/gooseberry family Grossulariacea, generally regarded as closely related to Ribes burejense. It is native to central and northern Asia, and has been reported as native to Altay, Kazakhstan, Krasnoyarsk, Mongolia, Tuva, West Siberia, Xinjiang. Its habitats vary from stony hill and mountain slopes to forest margins and thickets. In Northern China it has been found at altitudes of 1,500-2,100 metres. The plant is very cold hardy, and can tolerate temperatures down to -20°C during dormancy.

<i>Cryptomyzus ribis</i> Species of true bugs

Cryptomyzus ribis is a species of true bug found in Europe and described by the Swedish taxonomist, Carl Linnaeus in 1758. The larvae feed on the leaves of currant bushes, especially red currant, creating abnormal plant growths, known as galls.

References

  1. ↑ Myers, Claudia (1998). Specialty and Minor Crops Handbook. UCANR Publications. p. 56. ISBN   978-1-879906-38-9.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Sen, Indrani (July 21, 2009). "A Tart Berry Reintroduces Itself". The New York Times . Retrieved June 1, 2020.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Spector, Dina (October 14, 2016). "There's an intriguing reason why 99.9% of Americans have never tasted blackcurrant but Europeans love it". Business Insider. Retrieved June 1, 2020.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Specialty Crop Profile: Ribes (Currants and Gooseberries)". vt.edu. Virginia Cooperative Extension. Retrieved June 1, 2020.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Turechek, W; Mckay, S A; Heidenreich, M C; Heidenreich, G. "Evaluation of fungicides for white pine blister rust control on black currant. Fungicide and Nematocide Tests". US Department of Agriculture. Retrieved May 29, 2020.
  6. ↑ Myers, Claudia (1998). Specialty and Minor Crops Handbook. UCANR Publications. p. 57. ISBN   978-1-879906-38-9.
  7. 1 2 McGlynn, Patricia (July 26, 2006). "Welcome back black currants: Forbidden fruit making a comeback in New York". Cornell Chronicle. Retrieved June 1, 2020.
  8. 1 2 3 4 Foderaro, Lisa W. (October 16, 2003). "Is This New York's Idaho Potato?; Entrepreneur Has Grand Plans for Black Currants". The New York Times. Retrieved May 29, 2020.
  9. 1 2 Saunders, Kathy (May 6, 2019). "Are black currants illegal in the United States?". Tampa Bay Times. Retrieved June 1, 2020.
  10. ↑ "Plants Profile for Ribes nigrum (European black currant)". Plants Database. Natural Resources Conservation Service, United States Department of Agriculture . Retrieved May 29, 2020– via plants.usda.gov.
  11. ↑ Saner, Emine (August 19, 2010). "A juicy story". The Guardian. Retrieved June 1, 2020.
  12. ↑ O'Toole, Emer (August 2, 2019). "Public to go behind the scenes at Scottish Ribena blackcurrant grower". The National. Retrieved June 1, 2020.
  13. ↑ Taylor, Kate (September 9, 2016). "Purple Skittles taste completely different outside the US — and the American government is to blame". Business Insider . Retrieved June 1, 2020.
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