When annotating chess games, commentators frequently use widely recognized annotation symbols. Question marks and exclamation points that denote a move as bad or good are ubiquitous in chess literature. [1] Some publications intended for an international audience, such as the Chess Informant , have a wide range of additional symbols that transcend language barriers. [2]
The common symbols for evaluating the merits of a move are "??", "?", "?!", "!?", "!", and "!!". The chosen symbol is appended to the text describing the move (e.g. Re7? or Kh1!?); see Algebraic chess notation.
Use of these annotation symbols is subjective, as different annotators use the same symbols differently or for a different reason.
Move evaluation symbols, by decreasing severity or increasing effectiveness of the move:
The double question mark "??" indicates a blunder, a critically bad mistake. [2] Typical moves that receive double question marks are those that overlook a tactic that wins substantial material or overlook a checkmate. A "??"-worthy move may result in an immediately lost position, turn a won position into a draw, lose an important piece or otherwise severely worsen the player's position. Though more common among weaker players, blunders occur at all levels of play.
A single question mark "?" indicates that the annotator thinks that the move is a mistake and should not have been played. [2] Mistakes often lead to loss of tempo, material, or otherwise a worsening of the player's position. The nature of a mistake may be more strategic than tactical; in some cases, the move receiving a question mark may be one for which it is difficult to find a refutation. A move that overlooks a forthcoming brilliant combination from the opponent would rarely receive more than one question mark, for example. The symbol can also be used for a move that overlooks a far stronger move.
A question mark followed by an exclamation mark "?!" usually indicates that the annotator believes the move to be dubious [2] or questionable but to possibly have merits or be difficult to refute. The "?!" may also indicate that the annotator believes the move is weak or deserves criticism but not bad enough to warrant a "?". On certain Internet chess servers, such as Chess.com and Lichess, this kind of move is marked as an "inaccuracy", denoting a weak move, appearing more regularly than with most annotators. A sacrifice leading to a dangerous attack that the opponent should be able to defend against if they play well may receive a "?!". Alternatively, this may denote a move that is objectively bad but sets up an attractive trap.
Similar to "?!" (see above), an exclamation mark followed by a question mark "!?" is one of the most controversial symbols. Different sources have slightly varying definitions, such as "interesting, but perhaps not the best move", "move deserving attention", [2] "speculative move", "enterprising move" or "risky move". Usually it indicates that the move leads to exciting or wild play but that the objective evaluation of the move is unclear. It is also often used when a player sets a cunning trap in a lost position. Typical moves receiving a "!?" are those involving speculative sacrifices or dangerous attacks that might turn out to be unsound.
Andrew Soltis jokingly called "!?" the symbol of the lazy annotator who finds a move interesting but cannot be bothered to work out whether it is good or bad. [3]
An exclamation point "!" indicates a good move, [2] especially one that is surprising or requires particular skill. The symbol may also be interpreted as "best move". Annotators are usually somewhat conservative with the use of this symbol; it is not usually awarded to obvious moves that capture material or deliver checkmate.
Reasons for awarding the symbol vary greatly between annotators; among them are strong opening novelties , good psychological opening choices, well-timed breakthroughs, sound sacrifices, moves that set traps in lost positions, moves that avoid such traps, moves that punish mistakes well, sequential moves during brilliancies, and being the only good move that maintains the player's position.
The double exclamation point "!!" is used for particularly strong moves, [2] usually difficult-to-find moves which require a high level of skill and calculation. Annotators are generally more conservative and withhold this rating more than they do the "!". Typical moves that receive a double exclamation mark include sound sacrifices of large amounts of material and counter-intuitive moves that prove very powerful. Endgame swindles sometimes receive the "!!" mark too.
For example, in what is known as the Game of the Century, there are two moves by 13-year-old Bobby Fischer which annotators typically award a double exclamation point – 11...Na4!! and 17...Be6!!, knight and queen sacrifices respectively.
The majority of chess writers and editors consider symbols more than two characters long unnecessary. However a few writers have used three or more exclamation points ("!!!") for an exceptionally brilliant move, three or more questions marks ("???") for an exceptionally bad blunder, or unusual combinations of exclamation points and question marks ("!?!", "?!?" etc) for particularly unusual, spectacular, controversial or unsound moves.
For example, when annotating Rotlewi–Rubinstein 1907, [4] Hans Kmoch awarded Rubinstein's 22...Rxc3 three exclamation points. Annotators have also awarded the final move of Levitsky–Marshall 1912 (the "Gold Coins Game"), 23...Qg3 the "!!!" symbol.
An exceptionally bad blunder which has sometimes been awarded three or more question marks occurred in Deep Fritz–Kramnik 2006, when Kramnik played 34...Qe3, overlooking a mate in one with 35.Qh7#.
Sometimes annotation symbols are put in parentheses, e.g. "(?)", "(!)". Different writers have used these in different ways.
Ludek Pachman used "(?)" to indicate a move that he considered inferior but that he did not wish to comment on further; Simon Webb used it to indicate a move that is objectively sound, but was in his opinion a poor psychological choice; and Robert Hübner (see below) used it to indicate a move that is inaccurate and makes the player's task more difficult.
When put in parentheses, "(!)" usually indicates a subtlety which demonstrates the player's skill rather than a spectacular move.
Some writers take a less subjective or more formalized approach to these symbols.
In his 1992 book Secrets of Rook Endings and other books in the series (Secrets of Minor-Piece Endings and Secrets of Pawnless Endings), John Nunn uses these symbols in a more specific way in the context of endgames where the optimal line of play can be determined with certainty:
| Symbol | Meaning |
|---|---|
| ! | The only move that maintains the current evaluation of the position: If the position is theoretically drawn, this is the only move that does not lose; if the position is theoretically won, this is the only move that secures the win. An "!" is used no matter how trivial the move in question; the only exception is if it is the only legal move. |
| !! | A particularly difficult-to-find "!" move |
| ? | A move that negatively affects the evaluation of the position: If the position had been drawn before the move, it is now lost; if won before the move, it is now drawn or lost. |
| ?? | An obviously bad "?" move |
| !? | A move that makes the opponent's task harder or one's own task easier; for example, in a theoretically lost position, a move that forces the opponent to find several "!" moves in order to win |
| ?! | A move that makes the opponent's task easier or one's own task harder; for example, in a theoretically won position, a move that requires several subsequent "!" moves in order to win [5] |
This convention has been used in some later works, such as Fundamental Chess Endings and Secrets of Pawn Endings by Karsten Müller and Frank Lamprecht, but it can be safely assumed the convention is not being used unless there is a specific note otherwise. The Nunn convention cannot be used to annotate full games because the exact evaluation of a position is generally impractical to compute.
In 1959, Euwe and Hooper made the same use of the question mark, "... a decisive error ...". [6]
German grandmaster Robert Hübner prefers an even more specific and restrained use of move evaluation symbols:
I have attached question marks to the moves which change a winning position into a drawn game, or a drawn position into a losing one, according to my judgment; a move which changes a winning game into a losing one deserves two question marks ... I have distributed question marks in brackets to moves which are obviously inaccurate and significantly increase the difficulty of the player's task ... There are no exclamation marks, as they serve no useful purpose. The best move should be mentioned in the analysis in any case; an exclamation mark can only serve to indicate the personal excitement of the commentator. [7]
| Symbol | Meaning |
|---|---|
| ? | A move that turns a winning position into a drawn position, or a drawn position into a lost position. |
| ?? | A move that turns a winning position into a lost position. |
| (?) | An inaccuracy; a move that significantly increases the difficulty of the player's task. |
When the solution to a certain chess problem is given, there are also some conventions that have become a common practice:
| Symbol | Meaning |
|---|---|
| ! | A key move is marked with at least one "!" |
| ? | A try move |
| ! | A refutation to a try move |
| ? | When dual avoidance is a part of the thematic content of a problem, avoided duals (if listed) are marked with "?" |
These symbols indicate the strategic balance of the game position:
| CP437 | Unicode | In brief | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| = | Equal | Even position: White and Black have more or less equal chances. [2] | |
| +/= | ⩲ | Slight plus for White | Slight advantage: White has slightly better chances. [2] |
| =/+ | ⩱ | Slight plus for Black | Slight advantage: Black has slightly better chances. [2] |
| +/− | ± | Clear plus for White | Clear advantage: White has the upper hand. [2] |
| −/+ | ∓ | Clear plus for Black | Clear advantage: Black has the upper hand. [2] |
| + − | Decisive advantage for White | White has a winning advantage. [2] | |
| − + | Decisive advantage for Black | Black has a winning advantage. [2] | |
| ∞ | Unclear | Unclear position: It is unclear who (if anyone) has an advantage. [2] Often used when a position is highly asymmetrical, e.g. Black has a ruined pawn structure but dangerous active piece-play. | |
| =/∞ | ⯹ | Compensation | With compensation: Whoever is down in material has compensation for it. Can also denote a position that is unclear, but appears to the annotator to be approximately equal. [a] |
There are other symbols used by various chess engines and publications, such as Chess Informant and Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings , when annotating moves or describing positions. [8] Many of the symbols now have Unicode encodings, but quite a few still require a special chess font with appropriated characters.
| Symbol | In brief | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| ⌓ | Better | A better move than the one played [2] |
| □ | Only | The only reasonable move, or the only move available [2] |
| Δ | With the idea... | The future plan this move supports [2] |
| ∇ | Countering | The opponent's plan this move defends against |
| TNorN | Novelty | A theoretical novelty [2] |
| Symbol | In brief | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| ↑ | Initiative | An advantage in initiative |
| → | Attack | With an attack |
| ⇄ | Counterplay | The player has counterplay |
| ↻ or ↑↑ | Development | A lead in development |
| ○ | Space | More space controlled by one player |
| ⊕ | Time trouble, aka zeitnot | The player is short on time [2] |
| ⊙ | Zugzwang [2] | |
| + | Check | |
| ++ | Double check | |
| # | Checkmate |
Algebraic notation is the standard method for recording and describing the moves in a game of chess. It is based on a system of coordinates to uniquely identify each square on the board. It is now almost universally used by books, magazines, newspapers and software, and is the only form of notation recognized by FIDE, the international chess governing body.
The question mark? is a punctuation mark that indicates a question or interrogative clause or phrase in many languages.
The endgame is the final stage of a chess game which occurs after the middlegame. It begins when few pieces are left on the board.
This glossary of chess explains commonly used terms in chess, in alphabetical order. Some of these terms have their own pages, like fork and pin. For a list of unorthodox chess pieces, see Fairy chess piece; for a list of terms specific to chess problems, see Glossary of chess problems; for a list of named opening lines, see List of chess openings; for a list of chess-related games, see List of chess variants; for a list of terms general to board games, see Glossary of board games.
Portable Game Notation (PGN) is a standard plain text format for recording chess games, which can be read by humans and is also supported by most chess software.
The Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings (ECO) is a reference work describing the state of opening theory in chess, originally published in five volumes from 1974 to 1979 by the Yugoslavian company Šahovski Informator. It is currently undergoing its fifth edition. ECO may also refer to the opening classification system used by the encyclopedia.
In chess and other chess-like games, a tempo is a "turn" or single move. When a player achieves a desired result in one fewer move, the player is said to "gain a tempo"; conversely, when a player takes one more move than necessary, the player is said to "lose a tempo". Similarly, when a player forces their opponent to make moves not according to their initial plan, one is said to "gain tempo" because the opponent is wasting moves. A move that gains a tempo is often called "a move with tempo".
Chess notation systems are used to record either the moves made or the position of the pieces in a game of chess. Chess notation is used in chess literature, and by players keeping a record of an ongoing game. The earliest systems of notation used lengthy narratives to describe each move; these gradually evolved into more compact notation systems. Algebraic notation is now the accepted international standard, with several variants. Descriptive chess notation was used in English- and Spanish-language literature until the late 20th century, but is now obsolescent. Portable Game Notation (PGN) is a text file format based on English algebraic notation which can be processed by most chess software. Other notation systems include ICCF numeric notation, used for international correspondence chess, and systems for transmission using Morse code over telegraph or radio. The standard system for recording chess positions is Forsyth–Edwards Notation (FEN).
A chess opening theory table or ECO table presents lines of moves, typically from the starting position. Notated chess moves are presented in the table from left to right. Variations on a given line are given horizontally below the parent line.
In chess, the exchange is the material difference of a rook for a minor piece. Having a rook for a minor piece is generally advantageous, since the rook is usually more valuable. A player who has a rook for a minor piece is said to be up the exchange, and the other player is down the exchange. A player who wins a rook for a minor piece is said to have won the exchange, while the other player has lost the exchange. The opposing captures often happen on consecutive moves, but this is not strictly necessary. Although it is generally detrimental to lose the exchange, one may occasionally find reason to purposely do so; the result is an exchange sacrifice.
In chess, a blunder is a critically bad mistake that severely worsens the player's position by allowing a loss of material, checkmate, or anything similar. It is usually caused by some tactical oversight, whether due to time trouble, overconfidence, or carelessness. Although blunders are most common in beginner games, all human players make them, even at the world championship level. Creating opportunities for the opponent to blunder is an important skill in over-the-board chess.
In chess, the Maróczy Bind is a term alternately used to refer to an opening or its associated pawn structure, named for the Hungarian grandmaster Géza Maróczy. When the Bind is discussed as an opening, it is defined as 1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 g6 5.c4. The Maróczy Bind opening is a continuation of the Sicilian Defence, Accelerated Dragon, where 5.c4 is the characteristic move.
The exclamation mark! is a punctuation mark usually used after an interjection or exclamation to indicate strong feelings or to show emphasis. The exclamation mark often marks the end of a sentence, for example: "Watch out!". Similarly, a bare exclamation mark is often used in warning signs. The exclamation mark is often used in writing to make a character seem as though they are shouting, excited, or surprised.
Poole vs. HAL 9000 is a chess game depicted in the 1968 science fiction film 2001: A Space Odyssey. Astronaut Frank Poole (White) plays the supercomputer HAL 9000 (Black) using a video screen as a chessboard. Each player takes turns during a game in progress, making their moves orally using descriptive notation and natural language. Poole resigns the game once HAL indicates a certain path to checkmate; however, the move which HAL suggests Frank might make is not forced. Stanley Kubrick, director of 2001, was an avid chess player.
Chess Informant is a publishing company from Belgrade, Serbia that periodically produces volumes of a book entitled Chess Informant, as well as the Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings, Encyclopaedia of Chess Endings, Opening Monographs, other print publications, and software. Aleksandar Matanović and Milivoje Molerović founded the company in 1966 for the purpose of offering the rest of the world the sort of access to chess information enjoyed by Soviet players. The company has sold three million books in 150 countries, according to its website.
Aleksandar Matanović was a Serbian chess grandmaster, one of the leading Yugoslav players in the 1950s-1970s. In 1966 he founded the company Chess Informant, which publishes regular game collections from recent major tournaments and the Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings.
Much literature about chess endgames has been produced in the form of books and magazines. A bibliography of endgame books is below.
The game of chess is commonly divided into three phases: the opening, middlegame, and endgame. There is a large body of theory regarding how the game should be played in each of these phases, especially the opening and endgame. Those who write about chess theory, who are often also eminent players, are referred to as "chess theorists" or "chess theoreticians".
In a chess endgame of a king, bishop, and pawn versus a bare king, or, less commonly, a king, rook, and pawn versus a bishop and king, a wrong rook pawn is a rook pawn whose promotion square is the opposite color from the bishop's square color. Since a side's rook pawns promote on opposite-colored squares, and a bishop can only move on one color, one of the pawns may be the "wrong rook pawn". This situation is also known as having the wrong-colored bishop or wrong bishop. In many cases, the wrong rook pawn will only draw, when any other pawn would win. This is because the defending side can sometimes get their king to the corner in front of the pawn, after which the attacking side cannot chase the king away to enable promotion. A fairly common defensive tactic is to reach one of these drawn endgames, often through a sacrifice.
Rotlewi versus Rubinstein is a game of chess played between Gersz Rotlewi and Akiba Rubinstein in Łódź, Poland on December 26, 1907. It features a brilliant queen and rook sacrifice by Rubinstein to force mate.
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