Comparison of operating system kernels

A kernel is a component of a computer operating system. ^[1] It serves as an intermediary connecting software to hardware, enabling them to work together seamlessly. ^[2] A comparison of system kernels can provide insight into the design and architectural choices made by the developers of particular operating systems.

Comparison criteria

The following tables compare general and technical information for a number of widely used and currently available operating system kernels. Please see the individual products' articles for further information.

Even though there are a large number and variety of available Linux distributions, all of these kernels are grouped under a single entry in these tables, due to the differences among them being of the patch level. See comparison of Linux distributions for a detailed comparison. Linux distributions that have highly modified kernels — for example, real-time computing kernels — should be listed separately. There are also a wide variety of minor BSD operating systems, many of which can be found at comparison of BSD operating systems.

The tables specifically do not include subjective viewpoints on the merits of each kernel or operating system.

Feature overview

The major contemporary general-purpose kernels are shown in comparison. Only an overview of the technical features is detailed.

Kernel name	Programming language	Used in	Creator	Executable format (also see section below)	Type	Integrated firewall	SMP support	Multiple architecture support (also see section below).	Multitasking	Virtualization	Security	Profiling/Debugging	Soft real-time support	Hard real-time support	Can keep RTC in UT [3]
Amiga Exec		AmigaOS	Commodore International	HUNK	Exokernel (atypical) [4]	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	No	No
Amiga Exec SG (2nd Generation)		AmigaOS 4	Hyperion Entertainment	ELF/HUNK	Exokernel (atypical) [5]	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	No	?
DragonFly BSD kernel	C	DragonFly BSD	Matt Dillon	ELF	hybrid	Ipfirewall, PF	Yes	No	Yes	chroot, jail, vkernel	Unix permissions	DDB, KGDB	?	?	?
FreeBSD kernel	C	FreeBSD, Debian GNU/kFreeBSD, Gentoo/FreeBSD, Orbis OS	The FreeBSD Project	ELF, others - platform dependent	monolithic	IPFilter, Ipfirewall, PF	Yes	Yes	Yes	chroot, jail, bhyve	Unix permissions, POSIX.1e and NFSv4 ACLs, [6] [7] Capsicum, TrustedBSD MAC, OpenBSM	KDB, DDB, KGDB, DTrace, hwpmc	Yes	?	Yes
GNU Hurd	C	GNU/Hurd (Arch Hurd, Debian GNU/Hurd)	GNU Project/Free Software Foundation	ELF	multiserver microkernel	No	Partial [8]	No	Yes	chroot, Xen	Unix permissions, POSIX ACL, POSIX Capabilities	?	?	?	?
GNU Mach	C	part of GNU Hurd, used in GNU/Hurd	GNU Project/Free Software Foundation	ELF	microkernel	No	Partial [8]	No	Yes	No	No	?	?	?	?
Inferno kernel		Inferno	Bell Labs / Vita Nuova Holdings	?	virtual machine	?	Yes	Yes	Yes	chroot, Xen	?	?	?	?	?
L4		L4	Jochen Liedtke	None	microkernel	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Afterburner/L4 , Marzipan , capabilities in L4/Fiasco [9]	L4/Fiasco [9]	L4/Fiasco [9]	?	?
Linux kernel	C	Linux (kernel), Android, Ubuntu, CentOS, webOS, Fire OS, Firefox OS, ChromeOS, Syllable Server, Mastodon Linux, OpenBSD/Linux, Plan 9/Linux, Sailfish OS, Tizen, amongst others.	Linus Torvalds [10]	ELF, others	monolithic	Ipfirewall (1.1 –) ipchains (2.2 –) Netfilter (2.4 –) nftables (3.13 –) XDP (4.8 –)	Yes	Yes	Yes	cgroups, chroot, Lguest, Xen, KVM, kvm-lite, LXC	Unix permissions, POSIX ACL, POSIX Capabilities, keyctl, LSM (SELinux, SMACK, TOMOYO Linux, AppArmor)	OProfile, kprobe, SystemTap, JProbe, ftrace, KDB, KGDB, kernel marker, perf tools, eBPF	preempt=full, threadirqs	PREEMPT RT, CPU task isolation [11]	Yes
Compute Node Linux		Compute Node Linux	Cray Inc.	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?
Mach	C	NeXTSTEP and OPENSTEP for Mach, Tru64 UNIX and MkLinux	Carnegie Mellon University	Mach-O	microkernel, hybrid kernel	?	Yes	?	Yes	?	?	?	Yes	?	?
MINIX 3 kernel	C	MINIX 3	Andrew S. Tanenbaum	ELF, [12] a.out [13] [14]	microkernel	No	No	Yes	Yes	No	Unix permissions	Call profiling, statistical profiling, Minix Debugger (mdb)	No	No	?
NetBSD kernel	C	NetBSD, GNU/kNetBSD (Debian GNU/NetBSD),	The NetBSD Project	ELF, others - platform dependent	monolithic, anykernel using rump kernel architecture	IPFilter, PF, NPF	Yes	Yes	Yes	Xen, chroot	kauth, Unix permissions	DDB, KGDB, tprof	POSIX real-time scheduling extensions	Kernel preemption [15]	Yes
NetWare kernel		NetWare	Novell	NLM	hybrid	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	?	?	?	?	?	?
OpenBSD kernel	C	OpenBSD	OpenBSD developers	ELF, others - platform dependent	monolithic	PF	Yes	Yes	Yes	?	Unix permissions	?	?	?	?
OS/2 kernel		OS/2 version 2 and above	IBM	LX	hybrid	No	Yes	No PowerPC version developed but never officially released.	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	?
Plan 9 kernel	C	Plan 9 from Bell Labs	Bell Labs	?	monolithic	ipmux	Yes	Yes	Yes	?	?	?	?	?	?
ReactOS kernel	C	ReactOS	ReactOS Foundation	PE	hybrid	?	Yes	Yes	Yes	?	Yes	Yes	?	?	?
Rockbox kernel		Rockbox	The Rockbox Project	?	?	?	?	Yes	?	?	?	?	?	?	?
SunOS kernel	C	SunOS	Sun Microsystems	a.out	monolithic	?	Yes	Yes	Yes	?	Unix permissions	?	?	?	?
Solaris kernel	C	Solaris, OpenSolaris, GNU/kOpenSolaris (Nexenta OS)	Sun Microsystems	ELF (32-bit only until Solaris 7 in 1998)	monolithic	IPFilter, PF (since Oracle Solaris 11.3)	Yes	Yes	Yes	Zones, chroot	Unix permissions, ACL, RBAC, Auditing, Privileges, Zones, Trusted Extensions	DTrace, CPU profiling, microstate accounting, perf counters, kernel lock stats, kstats, mdb, kmdb	Real-time scheduler	?	Yes
SVR5 kernel	C	UnixWare 7, OpenServer 6	Santa Cruz Operation	ELF	monolithic	IPFilter	Yes	No	Yes	No	Unix permissions	?	?	?	Yes
Trix kernel		Trix	Massachusetts Institute of Technology	a.out	monolithic	?	Yes	No	Yes	?	?	?	?	?	?
VMkernel	C	VMware ESXi	VMware	ELF	monolithic	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Unix permissions	Built-in debugger	?	?	Yes
Windows NT kernel	C	All Windows NT family systems, 2000, XP, 2003, Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8, Windows Phone 8, Windows Phone 8.1, Windows 10, Windows 11, Windows Server	Microsoft	PE	hybrid	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Hyper-V	ACL, Privileges	Event Tracing, [16] dgbss, kd	Multimedia Class Scheduler Service	No	Unofficial [17]
Windows 9x kernel	C++	Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows Me	Microsoft	PE	monolithic
XNU (Darwin kernel)	C, C++	macOS, iOS, iPadOS, tvOS, watchOS, OpenDarwin, PureDarwin GNU/Darwin	Apple Inc.	Mach-O	hybrid	Ipfirewall, PF (starting in Lion)	Yes	Yes	Yes	chroot	Unix permissions, NT/NFSv4 ACLs, TrustedBSD MAC, OpenBSM	KDB, DDB, DTrace	Yes	No	Yes
SPARTAN kernel	C	HelenOS	Jakub Jermar	ELF	microkernel	?	Yes	Yes	Yes	?	?	?	?	?	?
Zircon	C++	Fuchsia OS	Google	ELF	microkernel	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	Lguest, Xen, KVM, kvm-lite	Yes	KDB, DDB, GDB	Yes	No	Yes

Failure analysis and availability

Kernel Name	Kernel Log	Serious system error report	Fatal system error report	Kernel crash dump	Kernel debugger	Hardware error detection	Software RAID	Remote storage replication	CPU hotplug	Memory hotplug	Kernel live patching	Kernel live update
DragonFly BSD kernel	Yes	?	Kernel panic	?	ddb	?	?	?	?	?	?	?
FreeBSD kernel	kern.msgbuf in sysctl	?	Kernel panic	Yes [18] [a]	ddb [18]	?	GEOM, ZFS	(HAST in user-space)	No	?	?	?
Linux kernel	kmsg	Linux kernel oops	Kernel panic / drm_panic	kdump [19] [b]	KDB / KGDB [20]	EDAC (formerly Bluesmoke)	md, LVM	DRBD [21] [22]	Yes [23]	Yes [24]	livepatch [25]	Kexec HandOver / Live Update Orchestrator [26]
NetBSD kernel	Yes	?	Kernel panic	?	DDB / KGDB	?	RAIDframe, ZFS	?	?	?	?	?
OpenBSD kernel	Yes	?	Kernel panic	Yes [27]	ddb	?	softraid	?	?	?	?	?
Solaris kernel	Yes	?	Yes	System core dump [28] [c]	mdb	ereport	Solaris Volume Manager, ZFS	?	?	?	?	?
Windows NT kernel	NT Kernel Logger in ETW		Stop Error (Blue Screen of Death)	Kernel-mode Dump	KD	WHEA	Storage Spaces / Disk Management	Storage Replica / DFS Replication	?	?	Hotpatch [29]	?
XNU	Yes	?	Kernel panic	?	ddb / kdp	?	AppleRAID	?	?	?	?	?
Zircon	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?

1. Can be debugged using kgdb(1)
2. Can be debugged using crash(8)
3. Can be debugged using mdb(1)

Scalability and clustering

Kernel Name	Supported number of CPU cores	NUMA support	Computer cluster interconnect				Application checkpointing / Process migration	Single system image	Clustered file system
			Remote direct memory access (RDMA) support	InfiniBand support	PCI Express Non-Transparent Bridge (NTB) support	CXL 3.1 inter-host communication with GIM support
DragonFly BSD kernel	256 [30]	Partial [30]	?	?	?	?	sys_checkpoint [31]	planned [32]	HAMMER2
FreeBSD kernel	1024 [33]	Yes [34]	Yes [35]	Yes [36]	Yes [37]	?	?	No	pNFS [38]
Linux kernel	8192 [39]	Yes [40]	Yes	Yes	Yes [41]	No	Checkpoint/Restart	(openMosix)	pNFS / Ceph / OCFS2 / GFS2
Solaris kernel	512 [42]	Yes	Yes	Yes [43]	?	?	No	No	PxFS
Windows NT kernel	?	Yes	?	?	?	?	?	No	Cluster Shared Volumes

Realtime support

Kernel Name	Full kernel preemption			Prevent priority inversion (Priority inheritance)		Realtime Scheduling	Realtime Priority	Realtime I/O	CPU Isolation	Disable CPU's Interrupt request (IRQ) handling	Disable CPU's timer ticks	Prevent memory from being swapped out
	kernel threads	interrupt handlers	lock sections	kernel space	userland
DragonFly BSD kernel	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	mlock/mlockall system call
FreeBSD kernel	?	?	?	?	UMUTEX_PRIO_INHERIT on _umtx_op [44]	SCHED_FIFO / SCHED_RR on ULE scheduler [45]	rtprio system call [45] [46]	?	?	?	Yes, since FreeBSD 9.0 [47]	mlock/mlockall system call [48] [49]
Linux kernel	preempt=full [50]	threadirqs	PREEMPT_RT [51]	RT-mutex / (mutex with Proxy Execution [52] )	PI-futexes [53]	SCHED_FIFO / SCHED_RR on CFS/EEVDF	rtprio system call	IOPRIO_CLASS_RT [54]	isolcpus [50]	irqaffinity	nohz_full [55]	mlock/mlockall system call
NetBSD kernel	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	mlock/mlockall system call
OpenBSD kernel	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	mlock/mlockall system call
Solaris kernel	?	?	?	?	Yes [56]	?	?	?	?	?	?	mlock/mlockall system call
Windows NT kernel	Yes [57]	?	?	AutoBoost [58]	?	REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS	?	?	?	?	Windows 8 and later [59]	VirtualLock
XNU	?	?	?	?	os_unfair_lock [60]	?	?	?	?	?	?	mlock system call
Zircon	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?

Transport protocol support

Kernel Name	Internet layer (L3)			Transport layer (L4)							L4S Congestion controls
	IPv4	IPv6	IPSec	TCP	Multipath TCP	UDP	UDP-Lite	SCTP	DCCP	QUIC	Accurate ECN (AccECN)	TCP Prague	Dual-Queue Coupled Active Queue Management
DragonFly BSD kernel	Yes	Yes	?	Yes	?	Yes	No	No	No	?	?	?	?
FreeBSD kernel	Yes	Yes	Yes [61]	Yes	Unofficial patch exists [62]	Yes	Yes [63]	Yes [64]	Unofficial patches exist [65] [66] [67] [68]	?	?	?	?
Linux kernel	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Partial [69]	Yes	dropped in 7.1 [70]	Yes	dropped in 6.16 [71]	Unofficial [72]	Yes [73] [74]	(Linux kernel tree with L4S patches)	DualPI2 qdisc [75] [76]
NetBSD kernel	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	?	Yes	?	Yes	Yes	?	?	?	?
OpenBSD kernel	Yes	Yes	?	Yes	?	Yes	No	No	No	?	?	?	?
Solaris kernel	Yes	Yes	Yes [77]	Yes	?	Yes	No	Yes	No	?	?	?	?
Windows NT kernel	Yes	Yes	Yes [78]	Yes	?	Yes	?	No	?	?	?	?	?
XNU	Yes	Yes	?	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	?	?	?	?
Zircon	?	?	?	Yes	?	Yes	?	Yes	Yes	?	?	?	?

Data link layer and Tunneling protocol support

Kernel Name	Data link layer (L2)		L2 over L2	L2 segmentation		layer 2.5 (L2.5)	L2 over L2.5	L2 over L3		L3 over L3				L2 over L4
	PPP	Ethernet	PPPoE	IEEE 802.1Q (VLAN)	IEEE 802.1ad (QinQ)	MPLS	VLL Epipe (VPWS)	L2TPv3	L2 GRE	L3 GRE	Mobile IP Minimal Tunneling [79]	IP in IP (IPIP) [80]	6in4 (SIT) [81]	PPTP	L2TP	VXLAN
DragonFly BSD kernel	Yes [82]	Yes	?	Yes [83]	?	?	?	?	?	Yes [84]		gif [85]		?	?	?
FreeBSD kernel	Legacy kernel PPP [86] [a] and netgraph-based kernel PPP [87]	Yes	Yes [88]	Yes [89]	?	?	?	?	?	Yes [90]	Yes [91]	gif [92]		?	?	Yes [93]
Linux kernel	Yes [94]	Yes [95]	Yes [96]	Yes [97]		Yes [98]	?	Yes [99]	?	Yes [100]	No	Yes [101]	Yes [102]	No [b]	Yes [103]	Yes [104]
NetBSD kernel	Yes [105]	Yes	Yes [106]	Yes [107]	?	Yes [108]	?	l2tp interface [109]	?	Yes [110]		gif [111]		?	?	?
OpenBSD kernel	Yes [112]	Yes	Yes [113]	Yes [114]	svlan [114]	?	mpw [115]	?	egre [116]	Yes [116]	No	?	gif [117]	?	?	Yes [118]
Solaris kernel	Yes [119]	Yes	Yes [120]	Yes	?	?	?	?	?	?	No	Yes	?	No [b]	No [b]	Yes
Windows NT kernel	?	Yes	raspppoe.sys [121]	?	?	?	?	?	?	Yes [122]	No	ipinip.sys [123]	No [124]	raspptp.sys [125]	rasl2tp.sys [125]	Yes
XNU	Yes	Yes	?	Yes	?	?	?	?	?	?	No	gif		?	?	?
Zircon	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?

1. Dropped since FreeBSD 8.0-RELEASE
2. Implemented in user-space only

Inter-process communication support

Kernel Name	Signal	Messaging		Shared memory		Stream-oriented				Kernel-assisted Remote Procedure Call
		Message queue (Mailbox)	between kernel and userspace	Anonymous	Named	Pipe		Local socket	Pseudo terminal
						Anonymous pipe	Named pipe
FreeBSD kernel	Yes	POSIX/ System V	AF_ROUTE and AF_NETLINK sockets [126] [127]	SHM_ANON [128]	Yes	Bidirectional [129]	Yes	AF_UNIX	posix_openpt [130] , and UNIX 98 and BSD-style compatibility module [131]	?
XNU	Yes	POSIX	AF_ROUTE and AF_SYSTEM sockets, Mach IPC	?	Yes	Unidirectional	Yes	AF_UNIX	UNIX 98 and BSD	Mach IPC
DragonFly BSD kernel	Yes	?	?	?	Yes	Bidirectional	Yes	AF_UNIX	UNIX 98 and BSD [132]	?
NetBSD kernel	Yes	?	AF_ROUTE sockets	?	Yes	Unidirectional	Yes	AF_UNIX	UNIX 98, BSD and OpenBSD (ptm) [133] [134]	?
OpenBSD kernel	Yes	?	AF_ROUTE sockets	?	Yes	Bidirectional	Yes	AF_UNIX	BSD and OpenBSD (ptm) [135]	?
Linux	Yes	POSIX/System V	AF_NETLINK sockets	memfd	POSIX/System V	Unidirectional	Yes	AF_UNIX	UNIX 98 and BSD	Binder
Solaris kernel	Yes	POSIX/System V	?	?	Yes	Bidirectional [136]	Yes	AF_UNIX	UNIX 98 and BSD	Doors
Windows NT kernel	?	MailSlot [137]	?	?	Yes	Unidirectional	NPFS	AF_UNIX [138]	No	ALPC

In-kernel security

Kernel	File access control	Disable memory execution support	Kernel ASLR	Mandatory access control	Capability-based security	In-kernel key management	Audit API	Sandbox	SYN flood protection	UDP flood protection	Ping flood protection	Smurf attack protection	Network Behavior Analysis
Linux	Traditional Unix permissions, POSIX ACL	Yes	Yes	LSM (SELinux, SMACK, TOMOYO Linux, AppArmor)	Yes	keyctl	fanotify / inotify	SELinux Sandbox, seccomp	SYN cookies	hashlimit module / intermediate lockless queues [139]	ICMP rate limiting	reverse path filtering	Netfilter
FreeBSD kernel	Traditional Unix permissions, POSIX and NFSv4 ACL	Yes	Yes	TrustedBSD MAC [140]	In-kernel privilege division, and Capsicum	?	OpenBSM / inotify [141]	Capsicum, MAC framework [142] [143]	SYN cookies	?	ICMP rate limiting	?	?
Solaris kernel	Traditional Unix permissions, POSIX ACL, NFSv4 ACL	Default	?	Solaris Trusted Extensions	Process privileges [144]	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?
Windows NT kernel	Access control list	DEP	Yes	Mandatory Integrity Control	Process security tokens, and AppContainers	No	Yes	Windows Event Log	Yes [145]	Yes	?	?	?
XNU	Traditional Unix permissions, NT/NFSv4 ACL [146]	Yes	Yes	TrustedBSD MAC	?	?	OpenBSM	Apple XNU Sandbox	?	?	?	?	?

Kernel	Code signing			Prevent BYOVD attack	Runtime integrity checking	Application Whitelisting	Verifying
	Kernel (Secure Boot)	Kernel driver	Application				block device	filesystem
Linux	Yes	Module signature verification [147]	IMA / EVM [148]	?	(Linux Kernel Runtime Guard [149] )	?	dm-verity [150] [151]	fs-verity [152] [153]
FreeBSD kernel	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?
NetBSD kernel	?	?	?	?	?	veriexec [154]	?	?
Solaris kernel	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?
Windows NT kernel	Yes	Kernel-Mode Code Signing [155]	?	Vulnerable Driver Blocklist [156]	PatchGuard [a] , HyperGuard [b]	AppLocker [154]	?	Windows Resource Protection
XNU	?	kext signing	?	?	Kernel Patch Protection [157]	?	?	?

1. a.k.a. Kernel Patch Protection
2. a.k.a. Secure Kernel PatchGuard

In-kernel virtualization

Kernel Name	Container (no resource management, no security)	Container (no resource management)	Container (resource management)	Paravirtualization	Full virtualization	User-space execution	Kernel as Library	Kernel as Kernel Driver	Hypervisor-Enforced Kernel Partitioning
Linux	chroot	LXC		Virtio, Hyper-V (guest only), Xen (guest only), VMI (guest only), kvm-lite, lguest	KVM	UML	(LKL)	(coLinux)	No
DragonFly BSD kernel	chroot	jail		No	No	vkernel	?	?	No
FreeBSD kernel	chroot	jail		Virtio, Xen [158]	bhyve	?	?	?	No
NetBSD kernel	chroot	(sysjail (discontinued))	No	Virtio, Xen [159]	No	?	Rump kernel	?	No
OpenBSD kernel	chroot	No	No	Xen (guest only) [160]	Yes [161]	No	No	No	No
Solaris kernel	chroot	Solaris Containers / Zones		No	No	No	?	?	No
Windows NT kernel	AppContainers, Job Objects, Windows Server Containers			Hyper-V		Project Drawbridge		No	Virtual Secure Mode, Device Guard, Credential Guard [162]
XNU	chroot	?	?	?	Yes [163]	?	?	?	No

In-kernel server support

Kernel Name	HTTP	FTP	NFS	CIFS	Name server	Transport-layer load balancer	Application-layer load balancer	9P	TLS proxy	WAF	Memcached server
Linux kernel	(TUX web server patch)	(TUX web server patch)	knfsd	ksmbd [164] [165]	?	IP Virtual Server	(KTCPVS)	(patch available)	SOL_TLS [166]	(Tempesta FW) [167]	(kmemcached)
DragonFly BSD kernel	No	No	Up to NFS v3	Yes	?	Yes [168]	?	No	No	?	?
FreeBSD kernel	No	No	Yes [169] [170] [171]	No	No	Yes [172]	No	No	ktls [173]	?	?
Solaris kernel	?	?	Yes	Yes [174]	?	Yes [175]	Yes [175]	?	KSSL	?	?
Windows NT kernel	HTTP.sys	?	?	Yes	?	Yes	Yes	No	?	?	?
XNU	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	?	?

Binary format support

A comparison of OS kernel support for different binary formats (executables):

Name	a.out	ECOFF	ELF	FDPIC ELF binaries (mmu less)	flat binaries (superH)	HUNK	Mach-O	Misc (wrapper based, like interpreters)	PE	SOM (PA-RISC, HP-UX)	NLM	PEF	DOS COM	MZ	LE	LX	NE
Amiga Exec	No	No	Yes [176]	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	?	?	?	?	?	?	?
DragonFly BSD kernel	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No
FreeBSD kernel	Yes	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No
HP-UX kernel	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	?	?	?	?	?
Linux	Dropped [177] [178]	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	?	No	?	?	?	?	?
MINIX 3	Some [13] [14]	No	Yes [12]	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	?	?	?	?	?
NetBSD kernel	Yes	Yes	Yes	?	?	?	Dropped [179]	?	Yes	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?
OpenBSD kernel	?	?	Yes	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?
ReactOS kernel	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	Yes	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?
Solaris kernel	Yes [180]	No	Yes [181]	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	?	?	?	?	?	?	?
Windows NT kernel	No	No	Yes with WSL	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No [a]	No [a]	?	?	No [a]
XNU	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No

1. Supported by Win32 subsystem in user-space on x86

File system support

Physical file systems:

Kernel	Acorn ADFS	Amiga FFS	APFS	BeFS	BFS	cramfs	EFS	ext2	ext3	ext4	F2FS	FAT	FreeVxFS	HFS	HFS+	HPFS	ISO 9660	JFFS	JFFS2	JFS	MINIX fs	NSS	NTFS	OCFS	QNX4 FS	System V FS	UDF	UFS	XFS	ZFS	ReiserFS	Reiser4	Btrfs	HAMMER	Tux3	exFAT	ReFS
DragonFly BSD kernel	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	limited write	No	No	No	read only	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No
FreeBSD kernel	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	Support dropped since 10.0-RELEASE [182] [183]	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	read only	Yes	read only	No	No	No	No	?	No
Linux kernel	Yes [184]	Yes	Unofficial [185]	read only	Yes	Yes	read only	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	read only	Yes	limited write (only with empty journal)	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Full read/write support since 5.15 [186]	Yes	Yes [184] [187]	write support?	Yes	Yes [184]	Yes	3rd-party module	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	No
MINIX 3 kernel	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	Tools available, cannot mount	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No
NetBSD kernel	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	Yes	?	Yes	?	?	?	?	?	?	?
NetWare kernel	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	?	No
OpenBSD kernel	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	Read only	No	No	No	Read only	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No
ReactOS kernel	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes [188]	Yes [188]	Yes [188]	No	Yes [188]	No	No	No	No	Yes [188]	No	No	No	No	No	Read only	No	No	No	Yes [188]	No	No	No	No	No	Yes [189] [188]	No	No	No	No
Solaris kernel	?	?	No	?	?	?	?	Yes	?	?	?	Yes	?	?	?	?	Yes	?	?	?	?	No	No	?	?	?	Yes	Yes	?	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	?	No
Windows NT kernel	?	?	Unofficial [185]	?	?	?	?	Unofficial [190]	Unofficial [191]	Unofficial [191]	No	Yes	?	Unofficial [185]	Unofficial [185]	No	Yes	?	?	?	?	No	Yes	?	?	?	Yes	?	?	No	No	No	Unofficial [192]	No	No	Yes	Yes
XNU	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	Unofficial [193]	Unofficial [193]	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	Read only	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	No	Official support was abandoned; 3rd-party modules available	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No

Networked file system support

Kernel Name	NFS	AFS	CIFS	Coda	9P	Ceph
DragonFly BSD kernel	Up to NFSv3	No	Yes	No	No	No
FreeBSD kernel	Yes [171] [194]	Yes	Yes [195]	Yes	No	Yes
Linux kernel	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
NetBSD kernel	Up to NFSv3	?	?	?	?	?
OpenBSD kernel	Up to NFSv3	?	?	?	?	?
Solaris kernel	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No	No
Windows NT kernel	Up to NFSv3 [196]	Yes	Yes	No	No	No
XNU	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No	No

Pseudo file system support

Kernel Name	Device File System	Process File System (procfs)	Interface for user-space file systems
DragonFly BSD kernel	devfs	Yes	FUSE
FreeBSD kernel	devfs [197]	Obsoleted [198]	FUSE [199]
Linux	devtmpfs	Yes	FUSE
NetBSD kernel	No	Yes	PUFFS
OpenBSD kernel	No	No	FUSE
Solaris kernel	devfs	Yes	FUSE (3rd-party implementation)
XNU	devfs	No	FUSE (Unofficial implementation)

Supported CPU instruction sets and microarchitectures

See also: List of Linux-supported computer architectures

kernel	HP			Softbank, ARM Holdings			Intel				MIPS		IBM				Renesas Electronics							Oracle			NXP		Analog Devices	Xilinx	Cadence		Canon, Axis Comm.	Socionext		Microchip, Atmel	CML, Hyperstone	Intel, Altera			WDC	Sunplus Technology	NVIDIA	TI
	VAX	Alpha	PA-RISC	ARM			x86		i960	IA-64	MIPS		PowerPC		S/390	z/Arch	H8300	M16C	M32R	78K	V850	SuperH		SPARC			m68k		Blackfin (no-mmu)	MicroBlaze	Xtensa		ETRAX CRIS	FR-V	MN10300	AVR32	E1 (no-mmu)	Nios (no-mmu)	Nios II		WDC 65C816	S+core	Tilera	C6X
				mmu	no-mmu	64-bit mmu	x86	x86-64			mmu	no-mmu	32-bit	64-bit								mmu	no-mmu	32-bit	64-bit	no-mmu	mmu	no-mmu			mmu	no-mmu							mmu	no-mmu
DragonFly BSD kernel	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No
FreeBSD kernel	No	6.4 and below only [200]	No	Yes	?	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	10.4 and below only [200]	projected to end in 14.x [200]	No	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	12.x and below only [200]	?	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No
Linux kernel	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	6.7 and below only	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	4.16 and below only [201]	No	2.6 and below only	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	4.16 and below only [201]	Yes	Yes	Yes	4.16 and below only [201]	4.16 and below only [201]	4.16 and below only [201]	4.12 and below only	No	No	Yes	Yes	No	4.16 and below only [201]	4.16 and below only [201]	Yes
MINIX 3 kernel	?	No	No	Yes	?	No	Yes	In progress	No	No	In progress	?	No	No	No	No	No	?	No	?	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No
NetBSD kernel	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No [202]	Yes	Yes	Yes	?	Yes	Yes	No [202]	Yes	No	No	No	?	?	?	?	?	Yes	No [202]	Yes	Yes	No [202]	Yes	No [202]	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?
NetWare kernel	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	?	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	?	?	?	?	?	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?
OpenBSD kernel	last supported release 5.8 [203]	Yes	Yes	Yes	?	Yes	Yes	Yes	?	No	Yes	?	Yes	No	No	No	?	?	?	?	?	Yes	?	Yes	Yes	?	Yes	Yes	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?
Rockbox kernel	?	?	?	Yes	?	?	?	?	?	?	Yes	?	?	?	?	No	?	?	?	?	?	Yes	?	?	?	?	Yes	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?
Solaris kernel	No	No	No	No	No	No	Dropped since Oracle Solaris 11 (11/11) [204]	Yes	?	No	No	No	Only in Solaris 2.5.1	No	No	Only available as a separated version of OpenSolaris	?	?	?	?	?	No	No	Dropped since Solaris 10 [205]	Yes	?	No	No	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?
Windows NT kernel	No	NT 5.0 RC1 and below only	No	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	XP and 2003-2008 R2 only	NT 4.0 and below only	No	NT 3.51 and NT 4.0 only	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No
Windows CE kernel	No	No	No	Yes	?	?	Yes	?	No	No	Yes	?	No	No	No	No	No	?	No	?	No	Yes	?	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No
XNU	No	No	No	Yes	?	Yes	Yes	Yes	?	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	No	No	?	?	?	?	?	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?
SPARTAN kernel	?	No	No	Yes	?	?	Yes	Yes	?	Yes	Yes	?	Yes	No	No	No	?	?	?	?	?	No	No	Yes	Yes	?	No	No	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?
FreeRTOS kernel	?	?	?	?	Yes [206]	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	Yes [206]	?	?	No	Yes [206]	?	?	Yes [206]	Yes [206]	?	Yes [206]	?	?	?	?	?	Yes [206]	Yes [206]	?	?	?	?	?	Yes [206]	?	?	?	Yes [206]	?	?	?	?
VMkernel	No	No	No	No	No	Yes [207]	Dropped since VMware ESXi 4.0 [208] [209]	Yes [208]	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No [206]	No	No	No	No
Zircon	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	?	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No

Supported GPU processors

Kernel name	Intel			NVIDIA	AMD Radeon		ARM Mali			Qualcomm	Imagination Technologies	Broadcom	VeriSilicon	Apple
	GMA [a]	GT [b]	Xe [c]	GeForce/ Quadro/ Tesla	Xenos/ TeraScale	GCN/ RDNA/ CDNA	Utgard	Midgard/ Bifrost	Valhall	Adreno	PowerVR	VideoCore4	Vivante [d]	AGX
Linux kernel	i915 driver		xe driver [210]	nouveau (C), Nova (Rust) [211]	radeon driver	amdgpu driver [212]	Lima [213] [214]	Panfrost [214]	Panthor (C), Tyr (Rust) [215]	msm driver	imagination driver [216]	vc4 driver [217]	etnaviv [218]	(Asahi driver) [219]
Windows NT kernel	Dropped [e]	Yes [222]		Yes	Dropped [f]	Yes	No			Windows Phone 8.x, Windows 10 Mobile, Windows on ARM	Yes [224]	No [225]	Windows IoT Enterprise on Arm [226]	No
XNU	Yes (macOS) [227]			No [g]	No [h]	?	No			No	via I/O Kit (iOS only)	No	No	iOS/macOS

1. Intel 9xx/Gxx/Qxx
2. Intel HD Graphics/Iris/UHD Graphics
3. Iris Xe Graphics/Intel Arc
4. Used in NXP i.MX family
5. Intel Graphics Media Accelerator Drivers were supported up to Windows 8.1. ^{[220] [221]}
6. AMD drivers for pre-GCN GPUs were supported up to Windows 10. ^[223]
7. Quadro & GeForce macOS Driver was supported up to macOS High Sierra (10.13). ^[228]
8. Radeon Mac Edition drivers were supported up to Mac OS X 10.4. ^{[229] [230] [231]}

Supported kernel execution environment

This table indicates, for each kernel, what operating systems' executable images and device drivers can be run by that kernel.

Kernel name	Linux	Darwin	Windows NT	FreeBSD	NetBSD	Solaris	OSF/1	Amiga Unix	SunOS	BSD/OS	iBCS2 systems	IRIX	Ultrix	NDIS	SVR4
FreeBSD kernel	Yes [232]	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Dropped [233]	Dropped [234]
Linux kernel	Yes	No	(Longene)	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	(NDISwrapper)	No
NetBSD kernel	Yes [235]	Dropped [179]	Dropped [236] [237]	Yes [235]	Yes	Yes [235]	Dropped [238]	Yes [235]	Yes [235]	Yes [235]	Dropped [239]	Dropped [240]	Yes [235]	Dropped [241] [242]	Dropped [243]
OpenBSD kernel	Dropped since OpenBSD 6.0 [244]	No	No	Dropped since OpenBSD 5.0 [245]	Dropped since OpenBSD 4.2 [246]	No	No	No	Dropped since OpenBSD 4.8 [247]	Dropped since OpenBSD 4.8 [247]	Dropped since OpenBSD 4.8 [247]	No	Dropped since OpenBSD 4.8 [247]	No	Dropped since OpenBSD 5.0 [245]
Windows NT kernel	Windows Subsystem for Linux 1	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No
ReactOS kernel	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	?	No
XNU	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No
VMkernel	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No

Supported cipher algorithms

This may be usable on some situations like file system encrypting.

Kernel name	DES	AES	Blowfish	Triple DES	Serpent	Twofish	CAST-128	DES-X	IDEA	RC2	RC5	SEED	Skipjack	TEA	XTEA	CAST-256	RC4	Camellia	Anubis	KHAZAD	Salsa20	FCrypt
DragonFly BSD kernel	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	No
FreeBSD kernel	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	No
Linux	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Windows NT kernel	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No
macOS XNU Kernel	Yes	Yes	Yes	?	?	?	Yes	?	?	Yes	Yes	?	?	?	?	Yes	Yes	?	?	?	?	?

Supported compression algorithms

This may be usable on some situations like compression file system.

Kernel name	Deflate		LZO	LZJB	zstd
	zlib	gzip
Linux	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Yes
NetBSD kernel	Yes	Yes	Yes	?	Yes
Solaris kernel	Yes	?	?	Yes	?

Supported message digest algorithms

Kernel name	CRC-32 (IEEE)	CRC-32C	MD2	MD4	MD5	SHA-1	SHA-2	SHA-3	Michael MIC	Poly1305	RIPEMD-128	RIPEMD-160	RIPEMD-256	RIPEMD-320	Tiger	Whirlpool	HMAC	MDC-2	GOST	LASH	VMAC
Linux	Yes [248] [249]	Yes [250]	No	Yes [251]	Yes [252]	Yes [253]	Yes [254]	Partial [255]	Yes [256]	Yes [257]	Yes [258]	Yes [259]	Yes [260]	Yes [261]	Yes [262]	Yes [263]	Yes [264]	No	No	No	Yes [265]
Solaris kernel	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	?	?	?	?	Yes	?	?	Yes	?	Yes	Yes	?	?	?
Windows NT kernel	?	?	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	?	No	?	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	?
FreeBSD kernel	Yes	Yes	?	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	?	?	?	?	Yes	?	?	Yes	?	Yes	?	?	?	?
XNU kernel	Yes	?	Yes	?	Yes	Yes	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?

Supported Bluetooth protocols

Kernel name	ACL	SCO	LMP	HCI	L2CAP	BNEP	RFComm.	SDP	TCP	AVTCP	AVDTP	OBEX	CMTP	HIDP	HCRP	CAPI	PPP
FreeBSD kernel	?	?	?	Yes	Yes	?	Yes	Yes	?	?	?	No	?	?	?	?	?
Linux	?	Yes [266]	?	Yes [266]	Yes [266]	Yes [266]	Yes [266]	?	?	?	?	?	Yes [266]	Yes [266]	?	?	?
macOS XNU Kernel	?	?	?	?	Yes	?	Yes	Yes	?	?	?	No	?	?	?	?	?
Kernel name	ACL	SCO	LMP	HCI	L2CAP	BNEP	RFComm.	SDP	TCP	AVTCP	AVDTP	OBEX	CMTP	HIDP	HCRP	CAPI	PPP

Audio support

Kernel name	Audio system	in-kernel mixer	in-kernel filter
Linux	ALSA, with optional OSS API compatibility [267]	?	?
Windows NT kernel	MME / WDM audio / Kernel Streaming (KS)	Dropped (KMixer.sys)	KS Filters
FreeBSD kernel	OSS API [268]	VCHANs in OSS API [269]	?
NetBSD kernel	native (Sun-like) / OSS API [270]	audio_system [271]	?
Solaris kernel	Sun audio API / OSS API	Yes	?

Graphics support

Kernel name	Framebuffer	Display management	Hardware Compositing (Multiple Planes)	Display Multiplexer	Color transform			GPU scheduler	GPU memory management	in-kernel Remote Desktop
					Matrices	1D LUT	3D LUT
Linux	Linux framebuffer (fbdev) / Direct Rendering Manager (DRM)	Kernel Mode Setting (KMS)	Plane abstraction in DRM/KMS [272]	VGA Switcheroo [273]	Linux Color Pipeline API in DRM [274]			DRM sched [275]	DMA-BUF	No
Windows NT kernel	Dxgkrnl.sys	VidPN Manager in Dxgkrnl.sys [276]	Multiplane overlay (MPO) in WDDM [277]	?	via MHC profile [278]		?	VidSch in Dxgkrnl [279]	VidMm in Dxgkrnl.sys, Dxgmms1.sys, and Dxgmms2.sys [280]	RdpDD.sys / RdpWD.sys

See also

• Comparison of open-source operating systems
• Comparison of Linux distributions
• Comparison of BSD operating systems
• Comparison of Microsoft Windows versions
• List of operating systems
• Comparison of file systems
• Comparison of operating systems

Footnotes

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2. "Kernel in Operating System". GeeksforGeeks. 2020-07-23. Retrieved 2025-05-31.
3. IBM PC Real Time Clock should run in UT
4. The Amiga hardware lacked support for memory protection, so the strong isolation goals of the microkernel design could not be achieved.^{[ citation needed ]}
5. The Amiga hardware lacked support for memory protection, so the strong isolation goals of the microkernel design could not be achieved.^{[ citation needed ]}
6. "Chapter 14. Security". FreeBSD Handbook.
7. setfacl(1)  –  FreeBSD General Commands Manual
8. www.gnu.org/software/hurd/faq/smp.html
9. "The Fiasco microkernel - Status" . Retrieved January 11, 2013.
10. "Linux Kernel FAQ".
11. A full task-isolation mode for the kernel
12. Supports ELF since version 3.2.0 "MinixReleases". Minix Wiki. Archived from the original on 31 May 2012. Retrieved 21 May 2012.
13. a.out will be phased out in coming releases. van der Kouwe, Erik. "Re: ~Segmentation [Was: Minix3 for sparc]". Minix3 for sparc. Google Groups. Retrieved 21 May 2012.
14. Commit to remove a.out utils from minix; only supports running a.out now. Leca, Antoine. "3fb8cb760c9075fab05682b89b1542d66481ba58". minix.git. Retrieved 21 May 2012.
15. "Announcing NetBSD 5.0".
16. "Event Tracing". Microsoft Docs . 7 January 2021.
17. "IBM PC Real Time Clock should run in UT".
18. "Chapter 10. Kernel Debugging". FreeBSD Documentation Portal. The FreeBSD Project. June 25, 2025. Retrieved 2026-03-25.
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20. Using kgdb, kdb and the kernel debugger internals. kernel.org.
21. DRBD: a distributed block device. LWN. April 22, 2009
22. Distributed Replicated Block Device - DRBD. kernel.org.
23. CPU hotplug in the Kernel. kernel.org.
24. Memory Hot(Un)Plug. kernel.org.
25. Livepatch. kernel.org.
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29. Hotpatching on Windows. Microsoft. November 20, 2021
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41. NTB Drivers. kernel.org.
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49. "mlockall(2)". FreeBSD Manual Pages. The FreeBSD Project. July 27, 2010. Retrieved 2026-04-04.
50. The kernel’s command-line parameters. kernel.org.
51. A realtime preemption overview. LWN. August 10, 2005
52. A proxy-execution baby step. LWN. July 29, 2025
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54. Block io priorities. kernel.org.
55. "(Nearly) full tickless operation in 3.10". Lwn.net. Retrieved 2015-04-09.
56. proc lwpsinfo_t Structure Oracle
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63. "udplite(4)". FreeBSD Manual Pages. The FreeBSD Project. October 1, 2014. Retrieved 2026-03-24.
64. "sctp(4)". FreeBSD Manual Pages. The FreeBSD Project. December 15, 2006. Retrieved 2026-04-04.
65. "DCCP Project - Main Page". DCCP Project. Archived from the original on 2004-05-01. Retrieved 2026-03-24.
66. Haggmark, Joacim (2003-10-08). "[dccp] FreeBSD implementation". Internet Engineering Task Force. Archived from the original on 2013-06-16. Retrieved 2026-03-24.
67. Yoshifumi Nishida (2009-07-18). "DCCP Implementation on BSDs" (pdf). Internet Engineering Task Force. Retrieved 2026-03-24.
68. Yoshifumi Nishida. "A Preliminary DCCP implementation on BSD". Archived from the original on 2009-08-10. Retrieved 2026-03-24.
69. Cloudflare Talks Up Multi-Path TCP But Dings Linux's Less Than Ideal Support. Phoronix. January 3, 2025.
70. Linux 7.1 To Retire UDP-Lite - Allows For Better Performance With Cleansed Code. Phoronix. March 16, 2026.
71. The second half of the 6.16 merge window. LWN. June 9, 2025
72. Xin Long. "In-kernel QUIC implementation with Userspace handshake". GitHub. Retrieved 2026-03-24.
73. More accurate congestion notification for TCP. LWN. February 18, 2026
74. IP Sysctl. kernel.org.
75. Dual-Queue Coupled Active Queue Management (AQM) for Low Latency, Low Loss, and Scalable Throughput (L4S) - Appendix A. Example DualQ Coupled PI2 Algorithm. IETF. January 2023
76. The 6.17 kernel has been released. LWN.net. September 28, 2025
77. https://docs.oracle.com/cd/E37838_01/html/E60991/genql.html How to Create and Configure an IP Tunnel - Administering TCP/IP Networks, IPMP, and IP Tunnels in Oracle® Solaris 11.4. Oracle
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79. RFC 2004
80. RFC 2003
81. RFC 1933, RFC 2893, and RFC 4213
82. DragonFly On-Line Manual Pages : ppp(4). DragonFly Projects
83. DragonFly On-Line Manual Pages : vlan(4). DragonFly Projects
84. DragonFly On-Line Manual Pages : gre(4). DragonFly Projects
85. DragonFly On-Line Manual Pages : gif(4). DragonFly Projects
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93. FreeBSD 10.2-RELEASE Release Notes. The FreeBSD Project
94. PPP (point-to-point protocol) support. kernelconfig.io
95. Ethernet (10 or 100Mbit). kernelconfig.io
96. PPP over Ethernet. kernelconfig.io
97. 802.1Q/802.1ad VLAN Support. kernelconfig.io
98. MultiProtocol Label Switching. kernelconfig.io
99. L2TPv3 support. kernelconfig.io
100. IP: GRE tunnels over IP. kernelconfig.io
101. IP: tunneling. kernelconfig.io
102. IPv6: IPv6-in-IPv4 tunnel (SIT driver). kernelconfig.io
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213. Lima. mesa3d.org.
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218. 4.5 merge window part 2. LWN. January 20, 2016
219. DRM User-Space API For Apple Silicon Graphics Posted For Review. Phoronix. March 10, 2025
220. Intel HD Graphics Drivers and Intel Graphics Media Accelerator Drivers. Intel
221. Supported Operating Systems for Intel Graphics Products. Intel
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224. Intel Atom integrated graphics card for Windows 8 tablet is based on a PowerVR
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230. Radeon 7000 Mac Edition Drivers and Downloads - Latest Version AMD
231. Radeon 9000 PRO Mac Edition Drivers and Downloads - Latest Version AMD
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233. ndis(4): remove as previous announced. FreeBSD Project. January 25, 2021
234. Remove SVR4 (System V Release 4) binary compatibility support. FreeBSD Project. February 28, 2017
235. NetBSD Binary Emulation
236. compat_pecoff. The NetBSD Project.
237. Remove COMPAT_PECOFF from all - I suspect is doesn't build anymore,. The NetBSD Project. November 10, 2007
238. src/trunk: src Remove compat_osf1, discussed on tech-kern@.. The NetBSD Project.
239. src/trunk: src Retire compat_ibcs2, as discussed on tech-kern@. FreeBSD did.... The NetBSD Project.
240. src/trunk: src Remove IRIX emulation. The NetBSD Project.
241. src/trunk: src Retire NDIS. It appears that it has never worked, after 13 y.... The NetBSD Project.
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247. "OpenBSD 4.8 Changelog". OpenBSD. Retrieved 2026-01-23.
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250. "Crc32c_generic.c « crypto - kernel/Git/Torvalds/Linux.git - Linux kernel source tree".
251. "Md4.c « crypto - kernel/Git/Torvalds/Linux.git - Linux kernel source tree".
252. "Md5.c « crypto - kernel/Git/Torvalds/Linux.git - Linux kernel source tree".
253. "Sha1_generic.c « crypto - kernel/Git/Torvalds/Linux.git - Linux kernel source tree".
254. "Sha256_generic.c « crypto - kernel/Git/Torvalds/Linux.git - Linux kernel source tree".
255. "Sha3_generic.c « crypto - kernel/Git/Torvalds/Linux.git - Linux kernel source tree".
256. "Michael_mic.c « crypto - kernel/Git/Torvalds/Linux.git - Linux kernel source tree".
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261. https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/torvalds/linux.git/tree/crypto/rmd320.c ^{[ dead link ]}
262. https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/torvalds/linux.git/tree/crypto/tgr192.c ^{[ dead link ]}
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271. audio_system(9) - NetBSD Manual Pages. NetBSD Project
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277. Multiplane overlay support. Microsoft.
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279. WDDM Architecture. Microsoft. October 2, 2024.
280. Video Memory Management and GPU Scheduling. Microsoft. July 3, 2024.