Conium maculatum

Last updated

Conium maculatum
Conium.jpg
Status TNC G5.svg
Secure  (NatureServe)
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Apiales
Family: Apiaceae
Genus: Conium
Species:
C. maculatum
Binomial name
Conium maculatum
L.
Synonyms [1]
List
    • Cicuta major
    • Cicuta officinalis
    • Conium ceretanum
    • Conium cicuta
    • Conium croaticum
    • Conium leiocarpum
    • Conium maculosum
    • Conium nodosum
    • Conium pyrenaicum
    • Conium sibiricum
    • Conium strictum
    • Conium tenuifolium
    • Coriandrum cicuta
    • Coriandrum maculatum
    • Selinum conium
    • Sium conium

Conium maculatum, commonly known as hemlock (British English) or poison hemlock (in North America), is a highly poisonous flowering plant in the carrot family Apiaceae.

Contents

The plant is herbaceous, with no woody parts, and has a biennial lifecycle. Under the right conditions, the plant grows quite rapidly during the growing season, and can reach heights of 2.4 metres (8 feet), with a long penetrating root. The plant has a distinctive odour that is usually considered unpleasant and carries with the wind. The hollow stems are usually spotted dark maroon and turn dry and brown after the plant completes its biennial lifecycle.

Native to Europe and North Africa, hemlock is a hardy plant capable of living in a variety of environments and is now widely naturalised in locations outside its native range, including parts of Australia, West Asia, and North and South America, to which it has been introduced. It is capable of spreading and thereby becoming an invasive weed.

All parts of the plant are toxic, particularly the seeds and roots, and especially when ingested. Hemlock is well-known as the poison that killed the philosopher Socrates after his trial in Ancient Greece.

Description

Conium maculatum is a herbaceous flowering plant that typically grows as a biennial, but can grow as a perennial on occasion. [2] The second year stems topped with flowers grow to between 0.5 and 3 m (1.6 and 9.8 ft) in height; [3] they are coarse and branch frequently. [4] Stems are hollow except at the joints where the leaves are attached, and are generally spotted or streaked with purple. [2] [5] In the first year of growth, the plant has no stems and produces a large rosette of leaves. [2] All parts of the plant are glabrous, lacking hairs, but sometimes they will have a small amount of blue-grey natural waxes on lower parts of the plant. [6]

The leaves are one- to three-pinnate,finely divided and lacy, with leaves lower down on the plant two or more pinnate while the upper leaves are just single pinnate and often only partly divided. The lower leaves are larger than those higher up. [3] They are broad with an overall triangular shape, some 30 to 60 cm (12 to 24 in) in length. [6] The leaflets are attached in pairs on opposite sides of the central veins. [4]

The poison hemlock's flowers are small and white; each flower has five petals. [7] The flowers are in umbrella shaped clusers called umbels. [3]

Similar species

The wild carrot, Daucus carota, is often confused with poison hemlock. Daucus carota Marchew zwyczajna 2023-07-23 Soltysowice 02.jpg
The wild carrot, Daucus carota , is often confused with poison hemlock.

Hemlock can be confused with the wild carrot plant ( Daucus carota ). Wild carrot has a hairy stem without purple markings, and grows less than 1 m (3+1⁄2 ft) tall. [8] One can distinguish the two from each other by hemlock's smooth texture, vivid mid-green colour, purple spotting of stems and petioles, and flowering stems reaching a typical height being at least 1.5 m (5 ft)—twice the maximum for wild carrot. Wild carrots have hairy stems that lack the purple blotches. [9] [10] The species can also be confused with harmless cow parsley ( Anthriscus sylvestris ), [2] [11] and water hemlock ( Cicuta ). [11]

Taxonomy

The generic name Conium comes from the Ancient Greek κώνειον kṓneion: "hemlock". This may be related to konas (meaning to whirl), in reference to vertigo, one of the symptoms of ingesting the plant. [12]

C. maculatum was the first species within the genus Conium to be described. It was identified by Carl Linnaeus in his 1753 publication, Species Plantarum . Maculatum means 'spotted', in reference to the purple blotches on the stalks of the species. [13]

Conium maculatum has 23 synonyms, 16 of them species, according to Plants of the World Online. [1]

Table of Synonyms [1]
NameYearRankNotes
Cicuta majorLam.1779species≡ hom., nom. superfl.
Cicuta officinalisCrantz1767species≡ hom.
Conium ceretanumSennen1926species= het.
Conium cicuta(Crantz) Neck.1768species≡ hom.
Conium croaticumWaldst. & Kit. ex Willd.1809species= het.
Conium leiocarpum(Boiss.) Stapf1886species= het.
Conium maculatum var. barceloiO.Bolòs & Vigo1974variety= het.
Conium maculatum subsp. croaticum(Waldst. & Kit. ex Willd.) Drude1898subspecies= het.
Conium maculatum var. immaculatumSchur1866variety= het.
Conium maculatum subsp. leiocarpum(Boiss.) Drude1898subspecies= het.
Conium maculatum var. leiocarpumBoiss.1872variety= het.
Conium maculatum subsp. viride(DC.) Espeut2002subspecies= het.
Conium maculatum var. virideDC.1830variety= het.
Conium maculosumPall.1771species= het.
Conium nodosumFisch. ex Steud.1821species= het., not validly publ.
Conium pyrenaicumSennen & Elías1928species= het.
Conium sibiricumSteud.1840species= het., not validly publ.
Conium strictumTratt.1811species= het.
Conium tenuifoliumMill.1768species= het.
Coriandrum cicutaCrantz1762species≡ hom., nom. superfl.
Coriandrum maculatum(L.) Roth1788species≡ hom.
Selinum conium(Vest) E.H.L.Krause1904species= het.
Sium coniumVest1805species= het.
Notes: ≡ homotypic synonym  ;=heterotypic synonym

Names

In British, Australian, and New Zealand English the most prominent vernacular name is hemlock. [14] [15] [7] This name is derived from the Old English words hymlice, hymlic, or hemlic likely referring to Conium. More certainly in the 1500s it referred to Conium maculatum and was used in herbalist texts. It entered Middle English as hemeluc, hemlok, hemlake, hemlocke, hemloc, or hemblock. In this period it was first spelled as hemlock by William Shakespeare in Henry V in 1623. [16] Combined with qualifying words it is used for other species, for example bastard hemlock for Anthriscus sylvestris and as eastern hemlock for Tsuga canadensis . [16] [17] For other uses see Hemlock.

In American and Canadian English, [18] [19] it is typically called poison hemlock, though this name is also used elsewhere. [15] This usage dates to 1757. [20] Less frequent names used in both America and Australia include spotted hemlock and poison parsley. [21] [15] Other local or infrequent names in the US include: bunk, California-fern, cashes, herb-bonnet, kill-cow, Nebraska-fern, poisonroot, poison-snakeweed, St. Bennet's-herb, snakeweed, stinkweed, and wode-whistle. [21] In Australia, it is occasionally called wild carrot or wild parsnip. [15] In Canada is it is also known as common poison-hemlock, deadly hemlock, fool's-parsley, spotted parsley, and spotted-hemlock. [19]

Distribution and habitat

The hemlock plant is native to Europe, Central Asia, and the Mediterranean region. [22] It occurs in many British Isles counties, [23] including in Northern Ireland. [24] It has become naturalised in Asia, North America, Australia, and New Zealand. [25] [26] [15] It is sometimes encountered around rivers in southeast Australia and Tasmania where it has been considered an invasive species. [27] Infestations and human contact with the plant are sometimes newsworthy events in the U.S. due to its toxicity. [28] [29]

Ecology

Agonopterix alstromeriana moth; its larva feeds on hemlock plants. Agonopterix alstromeriana, Aberdovey, North Wales, July 2006 (20191381660).jpg
Agonopterix alstromeriana moth; its larva feeds on hemlock plants.

The plant is often found in poorly drained soil, particularly near streams, ditches, and other watery surfaces. It grows on roadsides, at the edges of cultivated fields and in waste areas. [25] It grows in quite damp soil, [14] but also on drier rough grassland, roadsides, and disturbed ground. It is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera, including silver-ground carpet moths and the poison hemlock moth ( Agonopterix alstroemeriana ). The latter has been widely used as a biological control agent for the plant. [30]

Toxicity

All parts of the plant are poisonous. [18] The hollow stems remain deadly for up to three years after the plant has died. [31]

Hemlock contains coniine and some similar poisonous alkaloids, and is poisonous to all mammals (and many other organisms) that ingest it. Intoxication has been reported in cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, donkeys, rabbits, and horses. Ingesting more than 150–300 milligrams of coniine, approximately equivalent to six to eight hemlock leaves, can be fatal for adult humans. [32] Farmers need to ensure that the hay fed to their animals does not contain hemlock. Hemlock is at its most poisonous in the spring when the concentration of γ-coniceine (the precursor to other toxins) is at its peak. [33] [34]

Alkaloids

Chemical structure of one of the two enantiomers, the (S)-(+) isomer, of coniine, where natural mixtures are considered likely racemates (equal mixtures) of this and the (R)-(-) isomer. (S)-Coniine Structural Formula V.1.svg
Chemical structure of one of the two enantiomers, the (S)-(+) isomer, of coniine, where natural mixtures are considered likely racemates (equal mixtures) of this and the (R)-(–) isomer.

The major alkaloid found in flower buds is γ-coniceine. This molecule is transformed into coniine during the later stages of fruit development. [36] Seedlings have lower amounts of alkaloids overall and mainly γ-coniceine. [37] The alkaloids are volatile; as such, researchers assume that these alkaloids play an important role in attracting pollinators, such as butterflies and bees. [38]

Conium contains the piperidine alkaloids coniine, N-methylconiine, conhydrine, pseudoconhydrine, and gamma-coniceine (or g-coniceïne), which is the precursor of the other hemlock alkaloids. [25] [39] [37] [40]

Toxicology

Coniine has pharmacological properties and a chemical structure similar to nicotine. [25] [41] Coniine acts directly on the central nervous system through inhibitory action on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Coniine can be dangerous to humans and livestock, [37] and with its high potency, the ingestion of seemingly small doses can easily result in respiratory collapse and death. [42]

The alkaloid content in C. maculatum affects the thermoregulatory centre by a phenomenon called peripheral vasoconstriction, resulting in hypothermia in calves. [43] In addition, the alkaloid content stimulates the sympathetic ganglia and reduces the influence of the parasympathetic ganglia in rats and rabbits, causing an increased heart rate. [44]

Coniine has significant toxic effects on the kidneys. The presence of rhabdomyolysis and acute tubular necrosis has been demonstrated in patients who died from hemlock poisoning. Some of these patients had acute kidney injury. [45] Coniine is toxic for the kidneys because it leads to the constriction of the urinary bladder sphincter, eventually resulting in the accumulation of urine. [46]

Shortly after ingestion, the alkaloids induce neuromuscular dysfunction that is potentially fatal due to failure of the respiratory muscles. Acute toxicity, if not lethal, may be followed by spontaneous recovery, provided further exposure is avoided. Death can be prevented by artificial ventilation until the effects wear off after 48–72 hours. [25] For an adult, the ingestion of more than 100 mg (0.1 gram) of coniine (about six to eight fresh leaves, or a smaller dose of the seeds or root) may be fatal. Narcosis-like effects can be observed as soon as 30 minutes after ingestion of green leaves of the plant, with victims falling asleep and gradually becoming unconscious until death occurs a few hours later. [47] The onset of symptoms is similar to that caused by curare, with an ascending muscular paralysis leading to paralysis of the respiratory muscles and ultimately death by oxygen deprivation. [48]

As there is no specific antidote, prevention is the only way to deal with agricultural production losses caused by the plant. The use of herbicides and grazing with less-susceptible animals (such as sheep) have been suggested as control methods. Contrary to popular belief, scientific studies have disproven the claim that the plant's alkaloids can enter the human food chain via milk and fowl. [49]

In culture

Ancient Greece

The Death of Socrates, by Jacques-Louis David (1787) David - The Death of Socrates.jpg
The Death of Socrates , by Jacques-Louis David (1787)

In ancient Greece, hemlock was used to poison condemned prisoners. Conium maculatum is the plant that killed Theramenes, Socrates, Polemarchus, and Phocion. [50] Socrates, the most famous victim of hemlock poisoning, was sentenced to death at his trial; he took an infusion of hemlock. [51]

Uses

In high mountain areas of Georgia, hemlock leaves were used as a spring food after long winters. It required careful cooking, often in several changes of water. Other poisonous leaves used in this fashion included cow parsnips (Heracleum species), potatoes, and lilies. Locals speaking to ethnobotanical researchers were well aware of the poisonous nature of the plants and reported the practice to have largely died out with greater availability of cultivated foods in markets and roads allowing easier access to them during all seasons. [52]

It was also used as a medicine in ancient times, though great care was required due to its toxic properties. In Europe during the Medieval Period it was only administered as a remedy for "the bite of mad dogge" in wine together with betony and fennel seed. Later uses included as final, desperate attempt to cure virulent poisons such as strychnine. In the 1400s and 1500s European monks roasted the root and applied it externally to the feet, hands, and wrists for pain from gout. [53] From 1864 to 1898 hemlock was officially listed as a medicine in the London and Edinburgh pharmacopoeias. The last listing of it was removed from British Pharmaceutical Code in 1934. A wide range of potency for identical preparations is likely to have contributed to the discontinuation of its use as a medicine. [54]

See also

References

  1. 1 2 3 POWO (2025). "Conium maculatum L." Plants of the World Online . Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew . Retrieved 26 August 2025.
  2. 1 2 3 4 Pokorny, Monica; Davis, Stacy; Mangold, Jane (January 2018). "Poison Hemlock Conium maculatum" (PDF). Montana State University Extension. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 July 2024. Retrieved 22 August 2025.
  3. 1 2 3 Heil, Kenneth D.; O'Kane, Steve L. Jr.; Reeves, Linda Mary; Clifford, Arnold (2013). Flora of the Four Corners Region: Vascular Plants of the San Juan River Drainage, Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah (First ed.). St. Louis, Missouri: Missouri Botanical Garden. p. 114. ISBN   978-1-930723-84-9. ISSN   0161-1542. LCCN   2012949654. OCLC   859541992 . Retrieved 22 August 2025.
  4. 1 2 Welsh, Stanley L.; Atwood, N. Duane; Goodrich, Sherel; Higgins, Larry C. (1987). A Utah Flora . Great Basin Naturalist Memoirs, No. 9 (First ed.). Provo, Utah: Brigham Young University. pp. 353–354. JSTOR   23377658. OCLC   9986953694 . Retrieved 22 August 2025.
  5. ↑ Constance, Lincoln; Wetherwax, Margriet (2012). "Conium maculatum, in Jepson Flora Project". Jepson eFlora. University of California, Berkeley. Archived from the original on 4 December 2024. Retrieved 22 August 2025.
  6. 1 2 Moazzami Farida, Seyed Hamed; Ghorbani, Abdolbaset; Bussmann, Rainer W.; Batsatsashvili, Ketevan; Kikvidze, Zaal (2020). "Conium maculatum L. Apiaceae". In Batsatsashvili, Ketevan; Kikvidze, Zaal; Bussmann, Rainer W. (eds.). Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Far Eastern Europe: Ural, Northern Caucasus, Turkey, and Iran. p. 312. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-28940-9_148. ISBN   978-3-030-28940-9. OCLC   1156345046.
  7. 1 2 Holm, LeRoy G. (1997). World Weeds: Natural Histories and Distribution. New York: Wiley. p. 223. ISBN   978-0-471-04701-8. OCLC   34114783.
  8. ↑ "Poison-hemlock". Noxious Weeds in King County, Weed Identification Photos. Seattle, Washington: Department of Natural Resources and Parks (DNRP), Water and Land Resources Division (WLRD), Rural and Regional Services (RRS) section. November 28, 2016. Retrieved January 23, 2017.
  9. ↑ Nyerges, Christopher (2017). Foraging Washington: Finding, Identifying, and Preparing Edible Wild Foods. Guilford, CT: Falcon Guides. ISBN   978-1-4930-2534-3. OCLC   965922681.
  10. ↑ "How to Tell the Difference Between Poison Hemlock and Queen Anne's Lace". 2 July 2015. Archived from the original on 2021-05-19. Retrieved 2021-05-03.
  11. 1 2 "Poison Hemlock (Conium maculatum)". USDA Agricultural Research Service.
  12. ↑ "Conium maculatum". Northwestern Arizona University. Archived from the original on 2012-06-23. Retrieved 2012-07-06.
  13. ↑ "Conium maculatum (poison hemlock)". www.cabi.org. Retrieved 2020-12-03.
  14. 1 2 "Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora: Conium maculatum". Archived from the original on 2014-07-14. Retrieved 2014-08-07.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 "Atlas of Living Australia, Conium maculatum L., Carrot Fern". Archived from the original on 2015-09-19. Retrieved 2015-06-13.
  16. 1 2 "Hemlock, N." . Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/OED/2146562938.(Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  17. ↑ "Eastern Hemlock, N." . Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/OED/1184711966.(Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  18. 1 2 NRCS (30 January 2024), "Conium maculatum L.", PLANTS Database, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)
  19. 1 2 Acadia University; Université de Montréal Biodiversity Centre; University of Toronto Mississauga; University of British Columbia (2025). "Conium maculatum Linnaeus - Database of Vascular Plants of Canada (VASCAN)". Canadensys. Archived from the original on 10 November 2023. Retrieved 26 August 2025.
  20. ↑ "Poison Hemlock, N." . Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/OED/5209466060.(Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  21. 1 2 Coffey, Timothy (1993). The History and Folklore of North American Wildflowers . New York: Facts on File. p. 157. ISBN   978-0-8160-2624-1. OCLC   26131756 . Retrieved 24 November 2024.
  22. ↑ Hassler, Michael (18 August 2025). "Conium maculatum in Synonymic Checklist and Distribution of the World Flora. Version 25.08". World Plants. Retrieved 31 August 2025.
  23. ↑ Clapham, A. R.; Tutin, T. G.; Warburg, E. F. (1981). Excursion Flora of the British Isles . Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 195. ISBN   978-0-521-23290-6. OCLC   6249816 . Retrieved 30 August 2025.
  24. ↑ Hackney, P., ed. (1992). Stewart & Corry's Flora of the North-east of Ireland. Institute of Irish Studies and Queen's University Belfast. ISBN   0-85389-446-9.
  25. 1 2 3 4 5 Schep, L. J.; Slaughter, R. J.; Beasley, D. M. (2009). "Nicotinic Plant Poisoning". Clinical Toxicology. 47 (8): 771–781. doi:10.1080/15563650903252186. PMID   19778187. S2CID   28312730.
  26. ↑ Zehui, Pan; Watson, Mark F. "31. Conium Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 1: 243. 1753". Flora of China. Retrieved January 23, 2017. See also the substituent page: "1. Conium maculatum Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 1: 243. 1753". Flora of China. Retrieved January 23, 2017.
  27. ↑ "Hemlock, Carrot Fern, Poison Hemlock, Poison Parsley, Spotted Hemlock, Wild Carrot, Wild Parsnip". Weeds Australia - profiles. Centre for Invasive Species Solutions. 2021. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
  28. ↑ "Poison Hemlock". Archived from the original on 2022-11-29. Retrieved 2022-11-29.
  29. ↑ Adatia, Noor (2023-06-03). "Poison hemlock was spotted in a Dallas suburb. Here's what you should know about the plant". The Dallas Morning News. Archived from the original on 2023-06-03. Retrieved 2023-06-03.
  30. ↑ Castells, Eva; Berenbaum, May R. (June 2006). "Laboratory Rearing of Agonopterix alstroemeriana, the Defoliating Poison Hemlock (Conium maculatum L.) Moth, and Effects of Piperidine Alkaloids on Preference and Performance" . Environmental Entomology. 35 (3): 607–615. doi: 10.1603/0046-225x-35.3.607 . S2CID   45478867.
  31. ↑ Duggan, Scott (2018-06-01). "Poison hemlock and Western waterhemlock: deadly plants that may be growing in your pasture". Ag - Forages/Pastures.
  32. ↑ Hotti, Hannu; Rischer, Heiko (2017-11-14). "The killer of Socrates: Coniine and Related Alkaloids in the Plant Kingdom". Molecules. 22 (11): 1962. doi: 10.3390/molecules22111962 . ISSN   1420-3049. PMC   6150177 . PMID   29135964.
  33. ↑ Cheeke, Peter (31 Aug 1989). Toxicants of Plant Origin: Alkaloids, Volume 1 (1 ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. p. 118. ISBN   978-0849369902.
  34. ↑ "Poison Hemlock: Options for Control" (PDF). Lincoln County Noxious Weed Control Board. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 3 May 2015.
  35. ↑ Stephen T. Lee; Benedict T. Green; Kevin D. Welch; James A. Pfister; Kip E. Panter (2008). "Stereoselective potencies and relative toxicities of coniine enantiomers". Chemical Research in Toxicology . 21 (10): 2061–2064. doi:10.1021/tx800229w. PMID   18763813.
  36. ↑ Cromwell, B. T. (October 1956). "The separation, micro-estimation and distribution of the alkaloids of hemlock (Conium maculatum L.)". Biochemical Journal. 64 (2): 259–266. doi:10.1042/bj0640259. ISSN   0264-6021. PMC   1199726 . PMID   13363836.
  37. 1 2 3 Vetter, J. (September 2004). "Poison hemlock (Conium maculatum L.)". Food and Chemical Toxicology. 42 (9): 1373–1382. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2004.04.009. PMID   15234067.
  38. ↑ Roberts, Margaret F. (1998), "Enzymology of Alkaloid Biosynthesis", Alkaloids, Springer US, pp. 109–146, doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-2905-4_5, ISBN   978-1441932631
  39. ↑ Reynolds, T. (June 2005). "Hemlock Alkaloids from Socrates to Poison Aloes". Phytochemistry. 66 (12): 1399–1406. Bibcode:2005PChem..66.1399R. doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2005.04.039. PMID   15955542.
  40. ↑ "Conium maculatum TOXINZ - Poisons Information". www.toxinz.com. Archived from the original on 2017-05-23. Retrieved 2017-05-29.
  41. ↑ Brooks, D. E. (2010-06-28). "Plant Poisoning, Hemlock". MedScape. eMedicine . Retrieved 2012-03-02.
  42. ↑ Tilford, Gregory L. (1997). Edible and Medicinal Plants of the West. Mountain Press. ISBN   978-0-87842-359-0.
  43. ↑ López, T.A.; Cid, M.S.; Bianchini, M.L. (June 1999). "Biochemistry of hemlock (Conium maculatum L.) alkaloids and their acute and chronic toxicity in livestock. A review". Toxicon. 37 (6): 841–865. Bibcode:1999Txcn...37..841L. doi:10.1016/s0041-0101(98)00204-9. ISSN   0041-0101. PMID   10340826.
  44. ↑ Forsyth, Carol S.; Frank, Anthony A. (July 1993). "Evaluation of developmental toxicity of coniine to rats and rabbits". Teratology. 48 (1): 59–64. doi:10.1002/tera.1420480110. ISSN   0040-3709. PMID   8351649.
  45. ↑ Rizzi, D; Basile, C; Di Maggio, A; et al. (1991). "Clinical spectrum of accidental hemlock poisoning: neurotoxic manifestations, rhabdomyolysis and acute tubular necrosis". Nephrology, Dialysis, and Transplantation. 6 (12): 939–43. doi:10.1093/ndt/6.12.939. PMID   1798593.
  46. ↑ Barceloux, Donald G. (2008). "Poison Hemlock (Conium maculatum L.)". Medical Toxicology of Natural Substances: Foods, Fungi, Medicinal Herbs, Plants, and Venomous Animals. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 796–799. doi:10.1002/9780470330319.ch131. ISBN   978-0470330319.
  47. ↑ Drummer, Olaf H.; Roberts, Anthony N.; Bedford, Paul J.; Crump, Kerryn L.; Phelan, Michael H. (1995). "Three deaths from hemlock poisoning". Medical Journal of Australia . 162 (5): 592–593. doi:10.5694/j.1326-5377.1995.tb138553.x. PMID   7791646. S2CID   45736238.
  48. ↑ "Conium maculatum L." Inchem. International Programme on Chemical Safety . Retrieved 2012-07-06.
  49. ↑ Frank, A. A.; Reed, W. M. (April 1990). "Comparative Toxicity of Coniine, an Alkaloid of Conium maculatum (Poison Hemlock), in Chickens, Quails, and Turkeys". Avian Diseases . 34 (2): 433–437. doi:10.2307/1591432. JSTOR   1591432. PMID   2369382.
  50. ↑ Blamey, M.; Fitter, R.; Fitter, A. (2003). Wild flowers of Britain and Ireland: The Complete Guide to the British and Irish Flora. London: A & C Black. ISBN   978-1408179505.
  51. ↑ Nails, Debra (2009). "The Trial and Death of Socrates". In Ahbel-Rappe, Sara; Kamtekar, Rachana (eds.). A Companion to Socrates. Wiley. pp. 5–20. ISBN   978-1-4051-5458-1.
  52. ↑ Bussmann, Rainer W.; Paniagua Zambrana, Narel Y.; Sikharulidze, Shalva; Kikvidze, Zaal; Kikodze, David; Tchelidze, David; Khutsishvili, Manana; Batsatsashvili, Ketevan; Hart, Robbie E. (December 2016). "A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus". Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 12 (1): 11. doi: 10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2 . PMC   5034577 .
  53. ↑ Le Strange, Richard (1977). A History of Herbal Plants . New York: Arco Publishing Company. p. 89. ISBN   978-0-668-04247-5. OCLC   2837368 . Retrieved 30 August 2025.
  54. ↑ Bowman, W C; Sanghvi, I S (1 September 1963). "Pharmacological Actions of Hemlock ( Conium Maculatum ) Alkaloids". Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology. 15 (1): 1–25. doi:10.1111/j.2042-7158.1963.tb12738.x. eISSN   2042-7158.
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