Court (royal)

Last updated March 21, 2019

A court is an extended royal household in a monarchy, including all those who regularly attend on a monarch, or another central figure. Hence the word court may also be applied to the coterie of a senior member of the nobility.

A monarchy is a form of government in which a group, generally a group of people comprising a dynasty, embodies the country's national identity and its head, the monarch, exercises the role of sovereign. The power of the monarch may vary from purely symbolic, to partial and restricted, to completely autocratic. In most cases the monarch's position is inherited and lasts until death or abdication. In contrast, elective monarchies require the monarch to be elected. Both types have further variations as there are widely divergent structures and traditions defining monarchy. For example, in some elected monarchies family history is the only criterion for eligibility to be monarch, whereas many hereditary monarchies impose requirements regarding the religion, age, gender, or mental capacity. Occasionally this can result in more than one rival claimants, whose legitimacy is subject to election. There have been cases where the term of a monarch's reign either is fixed in years or continues until certain conditions are satisfied: an invasion being repulsed, for instance.

Nobility is a social class in aristocracy, normally ranked immediately under royalty, that possesses more acknowledged privileges and higher social status than most other classes in a society and with membership thereof typically being hereditary. The privileges associated with nobility may constitute substantial advantages over or relative to non-nobles, or may be largely honorary, and vary by country and era. The Medieval chivalric motto "noblesse oblige", meaning literally "nobility obligates", explains that privileges carry a lifelong obligation of duty to uphold various social responsibilities of, e.g., honorable behavior, customary service, or leadership roles or positions, that lives on by a familial or kinship bond.

The modern capital city has, historically, not always existed. In medieval Western Europe, a migrating form of government was more common: the itinerant court or travelling kingdom. This was the only existing West European form of kingship in the Early Middle Ages, and remained so until around the middle of the thirteenth century, when permanent (stationary) royal residences began to develop - i.e. embryonic capital cities.

In the largest courts, the royal households, many thousands of individuals comprised the court. These courtiers included the monarch or noble's camarilla and retinue, household, nobility, those with court appointments, bodyguard, and may also include emissaries from other kingdoms or visitors to the court. Foreign princes and foreign nobility in exile may also seek refuge at a court.

A royal household or imperial household is the residence and administrative headquarters in ancient and post-classical monarchies, and papal household for popes, and formed the basis for the general government of the country as well as providing for the needs of the sovereign and their relations.

A courtier is a person who is often in attendance at the court of a monarch or other royal personage. The earliest historical examples of courtiers were part of the retinues of rulers. Historically the court was the centre of government as well as the residence of the monarch, and the social and political life were often completely mixed together.

A camarilla is a group of courtiers or favourites who surround a king or ruler. Usually, they do not hold any office or have any official authority at the royal court but influence their ruler behind the scenes. Consequently, they also escape having to bear responsibility for the effects of their advice. The term derives from the Spanish word camarilla, meaning "little chamber" or private cabinet of the king. It was first used of the circle of cronies around Spanish King Ferdinand VII. The term involves what is known as cronyism. The term also entered other languages like the German and Greek, and is used in the sense given above.

Near Eastern and Eastern courts often included the harem and concubines as well as eunuchs who fulfilled a variety of functions. At times, the harem was walled off and separate from the rest of the residence of the monarch. In Asia, concubines were often a more visible part of the court.

The term Eastern world refers to various cultures or social structures and philosophical systems depending on the context, most often including at least part of Asia or geographically the countries and cultures east of Europe, the Mediterranean Region and Arab world, specifically in historical (pre-modern) contexts, and in modern times in the context of Orientalism.

Harem, also known as zenana in the Indian subcontinent, properly refers to domestic spaces that are reserved for the women of the house in a Muslim family and are inaccessible to adult males except for close relations. This private space has been traditionally understood as serving the purposes of maintaining the modesty, privilege, and protection of women. A harem may house a man's wife — or wives and concubines, as in royal harems of the past — their pre-pubescent male children, unmarried daughters, female domestic workers, and other unmarried female relatives.In former times some harems were guarded by eunuchs who were allowed inside. The structure of the harem and the extent of monogamy or polygamy has varied depending on the family's personalities, socio-economic status, and local customs. Similar institutions have been common in other Mediterranean and Middle Eastern civilizations, especially among royal and upper-class families, and the term is sometimes used in other contexts.

Asia is Earth's largest and most populous continent, located primarily in the Eastern and Northern Hemispheres. It shares the continental landmass of Eurasia with the continent of Europe and the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with both Europe and Africa. Asia covers an area of 44,579,000 square kilometres (17,212,000 sq mi), about 30% of Earth's total land area and 8.7% of the Earth's total surface area. The continent, which has long been home to the majority of the human population, was the site of many of the first civilizations. Asia is notable for not only its overall large size and population, but also dense and large settlements, as well as vast barely populated regions. Its 4.5 billion people constitute roughly 60% of the world's population.

Lower ranking servants and bodyguards were not properly called courtiers, though they might be included as part of the court or royal household in the broadest definition. Entertainers and others may have been counted as part of the court.

A bodyguard is a type of security guard, or government law enforcement officer, or soldier who protects a person or a group of people—usually high-ranking public officials or officers, wealthy people, and celebrities—from danger: generally theft, assault, kidnapping, assassination, harassment, loss of confidential information, threats, or other criminal offences. The personnel team that protects a VIP is often referred to as the VIP's security detail.

Patronage

A royal household is the highest-ranking example of this. A regent or viceroy may hold court during the minority or absence of the hereditary ruler, and even an elected head of state may develop a court-like entourage of unofficial, personally-chosen advisors and "companions". The French word compagnon, and its English derivation "companion", literally connote a "sharer of the bread" at table, and indeed the court is an extension of the great individual's household; wherever members of the household and bureaucrats of the administration overlap in personnel, it is reasonable to speak of a "court", for example in Achaemenid Persia, Ming China, Norman Sicily, the Papacy before 1870 (see Papal Household) or the Austro-Hungarian Empire. A group of individuals dependent on the patronage of a great man, classically in ancient Rome, forms part of the system of "clientage" that is discussed under vassal.

A regent is a person appointed to govern a state because the monarch is a minor, is absent or is incapacitated. The rule of a regent or regents is called a regency. A regent or regency council may be formed ad hoc or in accordance with a constitutional rule. "Regent" is sometimes a formal title. If the regent is holding his position due to his position in the line of succession, the compound term prince regent is often used; if the regent of a minor is his mother, she is often referred to as "queen regent".

A viceroy is an official who runs a country, colony, city, province, or sub-national state, in the name of and as the representative of the monarch of the territory. The term derives from the Latin prefix vice-, meaning "in the place of" and the French word roy, meaning "king". A viceroy's territory may be called a viceroyalty, though this term is not always applied. The adjective form is viceregal, less often viceroyal. The term vicereine is sometimes used to indicate a female viceroy suo jure, although viceroy can serve as a gender-neutral term. Vicereine is more commonly used to indicate a viceroy's wife.

A head of state is the public persona who officially represents the national unity and legitimacy of a sovereign state. Depending on the country's form of government and separation of powers, the head of state may be a ceremonial figurehead or concurrently the head of government. In a parliamentary system the head of state is the de jure leader of the nation, and there is a separate de facto leader, often with the title of prime minister. In contrast, a semi-presidential system has both heads of state and government as the leaders de facto of the nation.

Court culture

The Macartney Embassy. Lord Macartney salutes the Qianlong Emperor, but refuses to kowtow. LordMacartneyEmbassyToChina1793.jpg — The Macartney Embassy. Lord Macartney salutes the Qianlong Emperor, but refuses to kowtow.

Individual rulers differed greatly in tastes and interests, as well as in political skills and in constitutional situations. Accordingly, some founded elaborate courts based on new palaces, only to have their successors retreat to remote castles or to practical administrative centers. Personal retreats might arise far away from official court centres.

Etiquette and hierarchy flourish in highly structured court settings, and may leave conservative traces over generations. Most courts featured a strict order of precedence, often involving royal and noble ranks, orders of chivalry, and nobility. Some courts even featured court uniforms.

One of the major markers of a court is ceremony. Most monarchal courts included ceremonies concerning the investiture or coronation of the monarch and audiences with the monarch. Some courts had ceremonies around the waking and the sleeping of the monarch, called a levée.

Orders of chivalry as honorific orders became an important part of court culture starting in the 15th century.^[1] They were the right of the monarch, as the fount of honour, to create and grant.

History

Early history

The earliest developed courts were probably in the Akkadian Empire, in Ancient Egypt, and in Asia in China during the Shang dynasty, but we find evidence of courts as described in the Neo-Assyrian Empire ^[2] and in Asia in the Zhou Dynasty.^[3] Two of the earliest titles referring to the concept of a courtier were likely the ša rēsi and mazzāz pāni of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.^[4]. In Ancient Egypt we find a title translated as high steward or great overseer of the house ^[5]. The royal courts influenced by the court of the Neo-Assyrian Empire such as those of the Median Empire and the Achaemenid Empire would also have identifiable developed courts with court appointments and other features associated with later courts.^[6]

The imperial court of the Achaemenid Empire at Persepolis and Pasargadae is the earliest identifiable complex court with all of the definitive features of a royal court such as a household, court appointments, courtiers, and court ceremony.^[8] Though Alexander the Great had an entourage and the rudimentary elements of a court it was not until after he conquered Persia that he took many of the more complex Achaemenid court customs back to the Kingdom of Macedonia to develop a royal court which would later influence the courts of Hellenistic Greece and the Roman Empire.^[9]

The Sasanian Empire adopting and developing the earlier court culture and customs of the Achaemenid Empire would also influence again the development of the complex court and court customs of the Roman Empire and Byzantine Empire.^[10]

The imperial court of the Byzantine Empire at Constantinople would eventually contain at least a thousand courtiers.^[11] The court's systems became prevalent in other courts such as those in the Balkan states, the Ottoman Empire, and Russia.^[12] Byzantinism is a term that was coined for this spread of the Byzantine system in the 19th century.^[13]

East Asia

The courts of Chinese Emperors were among the largest and most complex of all. The Han Dynasty, Western Jin Dynasty, and Tang Dynasty occupied the large palace complex at Weiyang Palace located near Chang'an, and the later Manchu dynasty occupied the whole Forbidden City and other parts of Beijing, the present capital city of China. However, by the Sui Dynasty (est. 581) the functions of the royal household and the imperial government were clearly divided.

During the Heian period, Japanese Emperors and their families developed an exquisitely refined court that played an important role in their culture.

Medieval Europe

After the collapse of the Roman Empire in the West, a true court culture can be recognized in the entourage of the Ostrogoth Theodoric the Great and in the court of Charlemagne. In the Roman East, a brilliant court continued to surround the Byzantine emperors.

In Western Europe, consolidation of power of local magnates and of kings in fixed administrative centres from the mid-13th century led to the creation of a distinct court culture that was the centre of intellectual and artistic patronage rivalling the abbots and bishops, in addition to its role as the apex of a rudimentary political bureaucracy that rivalled the courts of counts and dukes. The dynamics of hierarchy welded the court cultures together. Many early courts in Western Europe were itinerant courts that traveled from place to place.

Local courts proliferated in the splintered polities of medieval Europe and remained in early modern times in Germany and in Italy. Such courts became known for intrigue and power politics; some also gained prominence as centres and collective patrons of art and culture. In medieval Spain (Castile), provincial courts were created. Minor noblemen and burguesie allied to create a system to oppose the monarchy on many policy issues. They were called "las Cortes de Castilla". These courts are the root of the current Spanish congress and senate.

The courts of the Duchy of Burgundy and the Kingdom of Portugal were particularly influential over the development of court culture and pageantry in Europe. The court of Philip the Good was considered one of the most splendid in Europe and would influence the development of court life later on for all of France and Europe.^[14] Later Aliénor de Poitiers of the Burgundian court would write one of the seminal books on court etiquette Les honneurs de la cour (Honors of the Court).

Court life would reach its apogee of culture, complexity and etiquette at the courts of Versailles under Louis XIV of France and the Hofburg under the Habsburgs.

As political executive functions generally moved to more democratic bases, noble courts have seen their function reduced once more to that of a noble household, concentrating on personal service to the household head, ceremonial and perhaps some residual politico-advisory functions. If republican zeal has banished an area's erstwhile ruling nobility, courts may survive in exile. Traces of royal court practices remain in present-day institutions like privy councils and governmental cabinets.

Africa

A series of Pharaohs ruled Ancient Egypt over the course of three millennia (circa 3150 BC to 31 BC), until it was conquered by the Roman Empire. In the same time period several kingdoms with their own royal courts flourished in the nearby Nubia region, with at least one of them, that of the so-called A-Group culture, apparently influencing the customs of Egypt itself. From the 6th to 19th centuries, Egypt was variously part of the Byzantine Empire, Islamic Empire, Mamluk Sultanate, Ottoman Empire and British Empire with a distant monarch. The Sultanate of Egypt was a short lived protectorate of the United Kingdom from 1914 until 1922, when it became the Kingdom of Egypt and Sultan Fuad I changed his title to King. After the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 the monarchy was dissolved and Egypt became a republic.

In the Horn of Africa, the Kingdom of Aksum and later the Zagwe Dynasty, Ethiopian Empire (1270–1974), and Aussa Sultanate all had royal courts. Various Somali Sultanates also existed, including the Adal Sultanate (led by the Walashma dynasty of the Ifat Sultanate), Sultanate of Mogadishu, Ajuran Sultanate, Warsangali Sultanate, Geledi Sultanate, Majeerteen Sultanate and Sultanate of Hobyo.

The kingship system has been an integral part of the more centralized African societies for millennia. This is especially true in the West African sahel, where royal courts have been in existence since at least the era of the 9th century Takrur and Ghana empires. The ruler of the 13th century Mali empire, Mansa Musa, brought a large number of his courtiers with him on the Islamic Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca. Today, the courts of the Ashanti nanas in modern Ghana, the Mande members of the tunkalemmu caste in Mali, the Bamum sultans of Cameroon, the Kanem shaykhs of Chad, the Hausa emirs of northern Nigeria, the inkosis of the Southern African Zulus and Xhosas and the obas and baales of Yorubaland, amongst others, continue the pageantry and court lifestyle traditions once common to the continent.

Caliphate courts

All four major Caliphates had sophisticated courts; this enabled Córdoba, Cairo and Baghdad (the respective seats of the Umayyad, the Fatamids and the Abbasids) to become the largest, most culturally developed cities of their time. This drew talented people from all walks of life—such as musicians, singers, poets and scientists—to seek employment under the patronage of elite bureaucrats, emirs and Sultans at court. The other Caliphate was the Ottoman, which employed its court's culture to stabilize an empire inhabited by huge non-Islamic populations spanning three continents. Everything from Algeria to the Balkans to Yemen was controlled by the court in Istanbul.

The royal courts in the Islamic world were mostly run by rulers, but there were the exceptions of important elite families such as Barmakids and Nizams who established their own minor courts, enabling them to encourage arts and improve the empire even if the ruling king was useless.

Court officials

Court officials or office-bearers (one type of courtier) derived their positions and retained their titles from their original duties within the courtly household. With time, such duties often became archaic. However, titles survived involving the ghosts of arcane duties. These styles generally dated back to the days when a noble household had practical and mundane concerns as well as high politics and culture. Such court appointments each have their own histories. They might include but are not limited to:

Court seats

Earlier courts in medieval Western Europe were itinerant courts, but courts were often held in a fixed place. One of the criteria of Norbert Elias' concept of a court society is that it existed in space.^{[ clarification needed ]}^[15]. The German word Hof, meaning an enclosed courtyard, can also apply to a rural farmstead with outbuildings and walls forming the perimeter. It has also been used for the palatial seat where the court was held. Thus Hof or "court" can become transferred to the building itself. For example, the grand residence Hampton Court Palace on the River Thames above London was where Thomas Wolsey held court as Catholic cardinal (built after the Italian ideal for a cardinal's palace) until his fall and its confiscation by Henry VIII. William and Mary also held court there, 1689–94. Though it is built round two main courts, the structure itself is no longer the seat of a court in the sense of this article.

As an example, ambassadors to the United Kingdom are still accredited to the Court of St. James's, and courtiers of the monarchy may still have offices in St James's Palace, London. The present monarch, however, holds court at Buckingham Palace, where dignitaries are received.

Some former seats of power (see official residence):

The Haute Cour (High Court) was the feudal council of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
Alhambra in Granada, seat of the last Muslim dynasty in current Spain
Ali Qapu Palace, imperial palace of the later Safavid emperors in Isfahan, Iran.
The Forbidden City, imperial palace complex walled off from Beijing
Gyeongbokgung Royal Palace, royal palace of the Joseon Dynasty in Seoul
Wawel Castle in Kraków and Warsaw Royal Castle, Poland
Château de Versailles near Paris in France
Palace of Darius in Susa and Persepolis, imperial Achaemenid palaces
Taq-i Kisra in Ctesiphon, Persia, in Sasanian period
Hofburg Palace in Vienna, Austria
Palatine Hill in Rome, Italy. Origin of the word palace.
Sanssouci in Potsdam near Berlin
The Vatican in the Papal States
Palazzo Medici Riccardi, palace of the House of Medici, Grand Dukes of Tuscany
The Kingdom of Portugal
- The Royal Alcáçova of Coimbra - under the House of Burgundy
- The Royal Alcáçova of São Jorge, Lisbon - under the houses of Burgundy and Aviz
- The Royal Palace of Évora - under the reign of Manuel I of Portugal
- The Royal Palace of Sintra - under the reigns of Manuel I of Portugal and John III of Portugal
- The Palaces of Ribeira, Lisbon - under the Houses of Aviz, Habsburg, and Braganza
- The Palace of Ajuda, Lisbon - under the House of Braganza
The Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg, Russia
Urbino, seat of a duchy in the Marche
The Red Fort, palatial fortress of the Mughal emperors in Delhi, India
Shaniwar Wada palace fort of the Maratha Peshwas in Pune, India
Great Palace of Constantinople in Constantinople
Topkapı Palace in Istanbul, Turkey - under the Ottoman dynasty
Royal Palace of Madrid in Spain
Alcázar de Colón in Santo Domingo

Examples of court seats in fiction

The Red Keep in King's Landing in George R. R. Martin's A Song of Ice and Fire
The Imperial Palace on Kaitain in Frank Herbert's Dune
The Imperial Palace on Coruscant in George Lucas's Star Wars
The Theed Royal Palace on Naboo in George Lucas's Star Wars
The Royal Palace of Andor in Caemlyn in Robert Jordan's The Wheel of Time
The Palace of Galadriel and Celeborn in Caras Galadhon in J.R.R Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings
The Citadel of Minas Tirith in Gondor in J.R.R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings

Court Structure and Titles

Notes

↑ Velde, François Velde (25 February 2004). "Legitimacy and Orders of Knighthood". Heraldica. Retrieved 25 February 2015.
↑ Radner, Karen (22 September 2011). The Oxford Handbook of Cuneiform Culture. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 358–379. ISBN 978-0-19-955730-1.
↑ ChinaKnowledge.de encyclopedia, "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2013-05-31. Retrieved 2012-12-07. . Alternatively, the sequence was translated as prince, lord, elder, master, chieftain: Brooks 1997:3 n.9.
↑ Groß, Melanie; Pirngruber, Reinhard (September 2014). "On Courtiers in the Neo-Assyrian Empire: ša rēsi and mazzāz pāni" (PDF). Imperium and Officium Working Papers (IOWP). Retrieved 24 February 2015.
↑ Stephen Quirke: Titles and bureaux of Egypt 1850-1700 BC, London 2004, ISBN 0-9547218-0-2, pp. 50-51, 61
↑ Dandamayev, Muhammad. "COURTS AND COURTIERS i. In the Median and Achaemenid periods". Encyclopædia Iranica. Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 24 February 2015.
↑ electricpulp.com. "PERSEPOLIS – Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 19 March 2018.
↑ Maria Brosius (2007). Spawforth, A.J.S., ed. The Court and Court Society in Ancient Monarchies. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–57. ISBN 978-0-521-87448-9.
↑ Tony Spawforth (2007). Spawforth, A.J.S., ed. The Court and Court Society in Ancient Monarchies. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 93–97. ISBN 978-0-521-87448-9.
↑ Canepa, Matthew (2 February 2010). The Two Eyes of the Earth: Art and Ritual of Kingship between Rome and Sasanian Iran. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520257276.
↑ Kazhdan, Alexander P.; McCormick, Michael (1995). "The Social World of the Byzantine Court" (PDF). In Maguire, Henry. Byzantine Court Culture from 829 to 1204. Harvard University Press. p. 175. ISBN 9780884023081.
↑ Angelov, Dimiter G. (2003). "Byzantinism: The Imaginary and Real Heritage of Byzantium in Southeastern Europe". New approaches to Balkan studies. Brassey's. pp. 3, 11. ISBN 1574887246.
↑ Angelov, Dimiter G. (2003). "Byzantinism: The Imaginary and Real Heritage of Byzantium in Southeastern Europe". New approaches to Balkan studies. Brassey's. p. 8. ISBN 1574887246.
↑ Oosterwijk, A Van (1 February 2013). Staging the Court of Burgundy (Studies in Medieval and Early Renaissance Art History). Brepols Publishers. ISBN 1905375824.
↑ Elias, Court society.

References

Elias, Norbert (1983) [1969]. The Court Society[Die höfische Gesellschaft]. trans. Edmund Jephcott. Oxford. . On the sociology of the court, originally completed in 1939.
Fox, Robin Lane (1973). Alexander the Great.

External links

Courtstudies.org, The Society for Court Studies, offering a bibliography on court history
Oxford University bibliography of Early Modern courts 1580–1700, structure and patronage, 2002
"Court culture: representations of intimacy": division between Hall and Chamber in late medieval noble and royal households
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Court (in Scripture)". Catholic Encyclopedia . New York: Robert Appleton Company.

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[1] Velde, François Velde (25 February 2004). "Legitimacy and Orders of Knighthood". Heraldica. Retrieved 25 February 2015.

[2] Radner, Karen (22 September 2011). The Oxford Handbook of Cuneiform Culture. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 358–379. ISBN 978-0-19-955730-1.

[3] ChinaKnowledge.de encyclopedia, "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2013-05-31. Retrieved 2012-12-07. . Alternatively, the sequence was translated as prince, lord, elder, master, chieftain: Brooks 1997:3 n.9.

[4] Groß, Melanie; Pirngruber, Reinhard (September 2014). "On Courtiers in the Neo-Assyrian Empire: ša rēsi and mazzāz pāni" (PDF). Imperium and Officium Working Papers (IOWP). Retrieved 24 February 2015.

[5] Stephen Quirke: Titles and bureaux of Egypt 1850-1700 BC, London 2004, ISBN 0-9547218-0-2, pp. 50-51, 61

[6] Dandamayev, Muhammad. "COURTS AND COURTIERS i. In the Median and Achaemenid periods". Encyclopædia Iranica. Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 24 February 2015.

[7] tricpulp.com. "PERSEPOLIS – Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 19 March 2018.

[8] Maria Brosius (2007). Spawforth, A.J.S., ed. The Court and Court Society in Ancient Monarchies. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–57. ISBN 978-0-521-87448-9.

[9] Tony Spawforth (2007). Spawforth, A.J.S., ed. The Court and Court Society in Ancient Monarchies. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 93–97. ISBN 978-0-521-87448-9.

[10] Canepa, Matthew (2 February 2010). The Two Eyes of the Earth: Art and Ritual of Kingship between Rome and Sasanian Iran. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520257276.

[11] Kazhdan, Alexander P.; McCormick, Michael (1995). "The Social World of the Byzantine Court" (PDF). In Maguire, Henry. Byzantine Court Culture from 829 to 1204. Harvard University Press. p. 175. ISBN 9780884023081.

[12] Angelov, Dimiter G. (2003). "Byzantinism: The Imaginary and Real Heritage of Byzantium in Southeastern Europe". New approaches to Balkan studies. Brassey's. pp. 3, 11. ISBN 1574887246.

[13] Angelov, Dimiter G. (2003). "Byzantinism: The Imaginary and Real Heritage of Byzantium in Southeastern Europe". New approaches to Balkan studies. Brassey's. p. 8. ISBN 1574887246.

[14] Oosterwijk, A Van (1 February 2013). Staging the Court of Burgundy (Studies in Medieval and Early Renaissance Art History). Brepols Publishers. ISBN 1905375824.

[15] Elias, Court society.

Court (royal)

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