The environmental impacts caused by the production of illicit drugs is an often neglected topic when analysing the effects of such substances. However, due to the clandestine nature of illicit drug production, its effects can be highly destructive yet difficult to detect and measure. The consequences differ depending upon the drug being produced but can be largely categorised into impacts caused by natural drugs or caused by synthetic/semi-synthetic drugs. Natural drugs refer to drugs which are primarily extracted from a natural source such as cocaine or cannabis.[1] Synthetic drugs are produced from material that can't be found in nature and semi-synthetic drugs are made from both natural and synthetic materials such as methamphetamine and MDMA.[1]Drug policy is a large determinant on how organisations produce drugs and thereby, how their processes affect the environment, thus prompting Government bodies to analyse the current drug policy.[2] It is inevitable that solutions to such environmental impacts are synonymous with solutions to overall illicit drug production, however many have noted the reactionary measures undertaken by government bodies and elevate the need of preventative measures instead.[2]
Natural drugs are those whose constituents are primarily extracted from natural sources such as cocaine or marijuana. The environmental impacts associated with such drugs include deforestation, watershed depletion and greenhouse gas emissions.[3]
Marijuana
Cannabis plant
With the ease of access to marijuana increasing due to legalisation in parts of North America and Canada[4] many have noted the increasing importance of measuring its possible environmental ramifications. As marijuana has been previously illegal in these areas there is now an opportunity to measure these outcomes. However, there have already been a variety of known consequences caused by the production of marijuana.
Watershed depletion is a serious issue that can be caused by marijuana production. Marijuana cultivation requires large amounts of water, where a single plant can require 8-10 gallons of water per day.[3] This sparks concern, especially in areas susceptible to water shortages such as California.[5] California is the largest producer of marijuana in the U.S[6] yet has had issues surrounding water supply and sanitation [7] for a number of years. In 2012, it was estimated that at least 3,177,241,050 gallons of water were used in the production of marijuana in California.[2] Thus, marijuana production can have severe implications on watershed levels with a number of organisations calling for stricter regulations as marijuana becomes more widespread.
The production of marijuana also requires large amounts of energy due to the controlling of environmental conditions.[8] This further causes high levels of greenhouse gas emissions and energy consumption.[3] "In 2015, the average electricity consumption of a 5,000-square-foot indoor facility in Boulder County was 41,808 kilowatt-hours per month, while an average household in the county used about 630 kilowatt-hours".[9] Such high levels of energy consumption in turn, result in high greenhouse gas emissions. In 2016, it was estimated that on average the production of one kilogram of marijuana produced 4,600 kilograms of carbon dioxide. Thus, marijuana cultivation produces 15 million metric tons of carbon dioxide in the United States in a single year.[3]
Cocaine
Most of the world's cocaine is produced in South America, particularly in the Andean region.[10] The environmental destruction caused by the production of cocaine has been well documented, with reports made the UN and other government bodies.[2] Due to the illegal nature of coca production, farmers make little effort in soil conservation and sustainability practices as seen in the high mobility and short life of coca plots in Colombia.[10]
One of the major implications of cocaine production is deforestation as large areas of forest are cleared for coca cultivation. The UNODC approximated that 97,622 hectares of primary forest were cleared for coca cultivation during 2001-2004 in the Andean region.[10] This further causes habitat destruction, especially in biodiversity hotspots, areas rich in a variety of species. Such areas are chosen for coca cultivation due to their remote locations, minimising chances of detection.[3] Deforestation has further impacts of soil erosion which further inhibits the survival of native species.[10]
The use of pesticides can also cause severely affect the environment. Farmers are able to sue un-regulated and highly toxic pesticides due to the clandestine nature of drug production.[3] The use of such pesticides can have both direct and indirect effects on the ecosystem. Where lethal levels of exposure directly cause the death of fauna, which is further carried up the food chain where secondary feeders who consume the poisoned animals are also impacted. Furthermore, non-lethal levels of exposure can also cause weaker immune system development and neurological issues, further increasing mortality rates.[3]
Environmental impacts of synthetic/semi-synthetic drugs
Synthetic drugs are those which are primarily derived from inorganic substances.[11] Semi-synthetic are a hybrid of both synthetic and natural drugs, however as both synthetic and semi-synthetic drugs undergo an array of chemical processes during production, their environmental impact are quite similar.
Methamphetamine
Methamphetamine or meth is a synthetic drug which can be produced on a domestic scale.
The dumping of toxic waste is a major issue associated with the production of meth.[12] It has been approximated that for each pound of meth produced, five pounds of toxic waste are also generated. The methods of disposal of these substances can be extremely damaging to the environment as producers may simply pour them down the sink or toilet. However, such methods allow producers to be more easily detected thus, producers sometimes adopt more environmentally destructive methods such as leaving waste in remote locations such as forests or buried underground where the waste can harm flora and fauna.[13] Producers have also used specialised trucks or vans, equipped with pumps and hose to drain waste onto the road as the vehicle moves. This decreases their chance of detection yet spreads the damage caused by the toxic waste.[13]
The production of meth also produces a number of toxic gases that can harm the human respiratory system and devastate the environment.[14] High levels of phosphine gas can be produced during meth production which can further cause headaches, convulsions and death.[14] The production of meth further produces hydrogen chloride gas, which when released into the environment cause damage metal structures and buildings. Hydrogen chloride is also highly soluble and readily dissolves into water bodies where it can harm the aquatic life.[15] This high solubility also causes it to be quickly washed out by rain in the atmosphere, further causing acid rain where high levels of such rain can have drastic impacts on the environment.[15]
Environmental impacts of drug policy
Drug policy is a determining factor on drug production as it partially dictates the methods through which illicit drugs are produced and transported. Thus, when determining such policies the environmental consequences are sometimes overlooked, resulting in effects which magnify the damage done unto the environment.[2] This is apparent in coca cultivation in the Andean Region, where drug policy has forced producers into more remote locations to avoid detection. In such ungoverned areas, producers maximise their damage through deforestation and toxic pesticide use, destroying these resource rich areas. These effects of drug policy have been noted by a number of government bodies including the UNDP who stated that some eradication campaigns “have not eradicated illicit production but rather displaced it to new areas of greater environmental significance.”[16]
Policies involving drug trafficking have also had adverse effects on the environment.[2] One key aspect of drug trafficking is the need to establish landing areas, usually by clearing land and deforestation. Once established, such areas further accelerate other illegal trafficking activities such as wildlife, marine and timber trafficking as drug traffickers may diversify their operations to expand their networks. Furthermore, as governments policies restrict the movement of traffickers, they must find alternate and more remote routes to transport their materials. These alternate routes typically require further land clearing and habitat destruction, thus further harming the environment.[2]
Drug policy can further inhibit biodiversity conservation. As drug policy can displace the actions of traffickers and producers into more biodiverse locations, their impact on global biodiversity is magnified.[10] As producers relocate into more remote locations, their actions of deforestation and dumping of toxic materials such as kerosene and hydrochloric acid can greatly damage biodiversity.[2] Furthermore, anti-drug initiatives and policies can further drain funding and diminish resources available for environmental protection initiatives.[2] Areas known for illicit-drug production can further discourage tourism, conservation activists and local law enforcement. This allows drug producers to conduct themselves with more freedom and thereby increase their damage. Furthermore, the lack of tourism in such areas limits the revenue of local conservation efforts and the transparency of theses issues.[2]
Possible solutions
Due to the nature of illicit drug production, it is inevitable that solutions to these environmental issues are synonymous with overall drug production prevention. However, by taking environmental impacts into account when formulating drug policies it is possible to better mitigate this damage.[2] Changes in approach have been highlighted as a key method to help target these environmental concerns. This involves analysing and these environmental impacts when assessing the effects of illicit drugs and informing the illicit drug consumer base and law-makers of these impacts.[2][3]
Improved cooperation between international, national and regional-level organisations allows for a more-informed and sustainable solution to drug production. Previous collaborative efforts have involved more reactory responses which moreso displaced drug operations rather than prevented. A more integrated response between different organisations allows for more preventative measures to be implemented.[2][3] Furthermore, as much of the environmental impacts occur in transit countries, not just countries of origin, greater integration between different organisations could allow for preventative policies in transit countries to be established.[2] An example of this improved cooperation can be seen in Plan Colombia, which saw the collaboration between the U.S and the Colombian Government to combat drug production.[17] The project saw a decrease in coca cultivation in Colombia from 160,000 hectares to 48,000 hectares and a decrease in the drug-related economy from US$7.5 billion to US$4.5 billion from 2008-2013.[18]
Quelling the demand for illicit drugs has also been considered as a solution to the environmental impacts involved with drug production.[19] That is, by reassessing current anti-drug propaganda and intertwining drug-related health issues with the environmental impacts of illicit drug production a decrease in demand may be achieved.[3] Shifting the approach of current advertisements to focus on such issues may better inform the public and consumers of illicit drugs of these environmental problems. This notion can be further carried into children's drug education, where placing greater emphasis on the environmental effects alongside the traditional and well known health effects may incite a greater reaction.[19] It has also been suggested that besides just revealing these issues it is important for advertising bodies to communicate the contribution individuals make by consuming illicit drugs, thereby increasing their sense of self-value and lessening their dependence on illicit drugs.[19] Enlightening more consumers of such problems may also accrue a larger audience and support for anti-drug solutions.[3] However, even if such a response fails to stem demand, shedding light on these issues may foster voter concerns who still may appeal to legislators.[3]
Cocaine is a tropane alkaloid that acts as a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant. As an extract, it is mainly used recreationally and often illegally for its euphoric and rewarding effects. It is also used in medicine by Indigenous South Americans for various purposes and rarely, but more formally, as a local anaesthetic or diagnostic tool by medical practitioners in more developed countries. It is primarily obtained from the leaves of two Coca species native to South America: Erythroxylum coca and E. novogranatense. After extraction from the plant, and further processing into cocaine hydrochloride, the drug is administered by being either snorted, applied topically to the mouth, or dissolved and injected into a vein. It can also then be turned into free base form, in which it can be heated until sublimated and then the vapours can be inhaled.
Coca is any of the four cultivated plants in the family Erythroxylaceae, native to western South America. Coca is known worldwide for its psychoactive alkaloid, cocaine.
The illegal drug trade, drug trafficking, or narcotrafficking is a global black market dedicated to the cultivation, manufacture, distribution and sale of prohibited drugs. Most jurisdictions prohibit trade, except under license, of many types of drugs through the use of drug prohibition laws. The think tank Global Financial Integrity's Transnational Crime and the Developing World report estimates the size of the global illicit drug market between US$426 and US$652billion in 2014 alone. With a world GDP of US$78 trillion in the same year, the illegal drug trade may be estimated as nearly 1% of total global trade. Consumption of illegal drugs is widespread globally, and it remains very difficult for local authorities to reduce the rates of drug consumption.
Coca eradication is a strategy promoted by the United States government starting in 1961 as part of its "war on drugs" to eliminate the cultivation of coca, a plant whose leaves are not only traditionally used by indigenous cultures but also, in modern society, in the manufacture of cocaine. The strategy was adopted in place of running educational campaigns against drug usage. The prohibitionist strategy is being pursued in the coca-growing regions of Colombia, Peru, and formerly Bolivia, where it is highly controversial because of its environmental, health and socioeconomic impact. Furthermore, indigenous cultures living in the Altiplano, such as the Aymaras, use the coca leaf in many of their cultural traditions, notably for its medicinal qualities in alleviating the feeling of hunger, fatigue and headaches symptomatic of altitude sicknesses. The growers of coca are named Cocaleros and part of the coca production for traditional use is legal in Peru, Bolivia and Chile.
Plan Colombia was a United States foreign aid, military aid, and diplomatic initiative aimed at combating Colombian drug cartels and left-wing insurgent groups in Colombia. The plan was originally conceived in 1999 by the administrations of Colombian President Andrés Pastrana and U.S. President Bill Clinton, and signed into law in the United States in 2000.
Clandestine chemistry is chemistry carried out in secret, and particularly in illegal drug laboratories. Larger labs are usually run by gangs or organized crime intending to produce for distribution on the black market. Smaller labs can be run by individual chemists working clandestinely in order to synthesize smaller amounts of controlled substances or simply out of a hobbyist interest in chemistry, often because of the difficulty in ascertaining the purity of other, illegally synthesized drugs obtained on the black market. The term clandestine lab is generally used in any situation involving the production of illicit compounds, regardless of whether the facilities being used qualify as a true laboratory.
The war on drugs is the policy of a global campaign, led by the United States federal government, of drug prohibition, military aid, and military intervention, with the aim of reducing the illegal drug trade in the United States. The initiative includes a set of drug policies that are intended to discourage the production, distribution, and consumption of psychoactive drugs that the participating governments, through United Nations treaties, have made illegal.
Commonly-cited arguments for and against the prohibition of drugs include the following:
Lacing or cutting, in drug culture, refer to the act of using a substance to adulterate substances independent of the reason. The resulting substance is laced or cut.
Environmentally, Colombia is a mega-diverse country from its natural land terrain to its biological wildlife. Its biodiversity is a result of its geographical location and elevation. It is the fourth largest South American country and only country in South America to have coasts on the Pacific and Caribbean Sea. Colombia's terrain can be divided into six main natural zones: The Caribbean, the Pacific, The Orinoco region, The Amazonia region, the Andean region, and the Insular region. 52.2% of the environment is predominately the Andes, Amazon, and Pacific Basins, followed by the Orinoco basin 13.9%, the Andes and the Caribbean. The Tropical Andes, Choco, and the Caribbean are considered biodiversity hotspots which puts these areas at high risk of concentration of colonizing activities. Colombia host over 1800 bird species and at least one new species are detected every year. Decades of civil war and political unrest have impeded biological and environmental research in Colombia. The political unrest in Colombia catalyzes the alteration of land patterns through the cultivation of coca and opium crops, the redirection of extractive activities, and land abandonment in some areas.
The balloon effect is a criticism of United States drug policy. The name draws an analogy between efforts to eradicate the production of illegal drugs in South American countries and squeezing a balloon: If a balloon is squeezed the air is moved, but does not disappear, instead moving into another area of less resistance.
The illegal drug trade in Colombia has, since the 1970s, centered successively on four major drug trafficking cartels: Medellín, Cali, Norte del Valle, and North Coast, as well as several bandas criminales, or BACRIMs. The trade eventually created a new social class and influenced several aspects of Colombian culture, economics, and politics.
Colombia loses 2,000 km2 of forest annually to deforestation, according to the United Nations in 2003. Some suggest that this figure is as high as 3,000 km2 due to illegal logging in the region. Deforestation results mainly from logging for timber, small-scale agricultural ranching, mining, development of energy resources such as hydro-electricity, infrastructure, cocaine production, and farming.
A rolling meth lab is a transportable laboratory that is used to illegally produce methamphetamine. Rolling meth labs are often moved to a secluded location where the strong, toxic fumes of methamphetamine manufacture cannot be detected and where the toxic manufacturing byproducts can be discarded. They are sometimes designed to manufacture the drug while the lab is traveling.
In 2012, coca production in Colombia amounted to 0.2% of Colombia's overall GDP and 3% of Colombia's GDP related to the agricultural sector. The great majority of coca cultivation takes place in the departments of Putumayo, Caquetá, Meta, Guaviare, Nariño, Antioquia, and Vichada.
Central American countries have experienced cycles of deforestation and reforestation since the decline of Maya civilization, influenced by many factors such as population growth, agriculture, narcotic distribution and illegal practices. From 2001 to 2010, 5,376 square kilometres (2,076 sq mi) of forest were lost in the region. In 2010 Belize had 63% of remaining forest cover, Costa Rica 46%, Panama 45%, Honduras 41%, Guatemala 37%, Nicaragua 29%, and El Salvador 21%. Most of the loss occurred in the moist forest biome, with 12,201 square kilometers. Woody vegetation loss was partially set off by a plus in the coniferous forest biome with 4,730 km2, and at 2,054 km2. Mangroves and deserts contributed only 1% to the loss in forest vegetation. The bulk of the deforestation was located at the Caribbean slopes of Nicaragua with a minus of 8,574 square kilometers of forest lost in the period from 2001 to 2010. The most significant regrowth of 3,050 km2 of forest was seen in the coniferous woody vegetation of Honduras.
The illegal drug trade in Latin America concerns primarily the production and sale of cocaine and cannabis, including the export of these banned substances to the United States and Europe. The coca cultivation is concentrated in the Andes of South America, particularly in Colombia, Peru and Bolivia; this is the world's only source region for coca.
East African drug trade refers to the sale and trafficking of illegal drugs that take place in East African countries like Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Somalia, and Ethiopia. The most prevalent types of drugs traded in East Africa are heroin, marijuana, cocaine, methamphetamine, and khat, all of which are strictly prohibited in East African countries.
The illegal drug trade in Japan is the illegal production, transport, sale, and use of prohibited drugs in Japan. The drug trade is influenced by various factors, including history, economic conditions, and cultural norms. While methamphetamine is historically the most widely trafficked illegal drug in post-World War II Japan, marijuana, cocaine, and other prohibited substances are also present. Additionally, Japan's status as a developed economy and the presence of organized crime in Japan have made it a target of the international drug trade.
Environmental impact of cannabis cultivation includes all the environmental issues which occur as a result of cannabis cultivation.
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