Environmental movement in South Africa

Last updated

South African youth climate activists in 2020. Project 90 by 2030 - Youlead Warriors.jpg
South African youth climate activists in 2020.

The environmental movement in South Africa traces its history from the beginnings of conservation and preservation groups in the late 19th century, to the rise of radicalism amongst local ecologists and activists. The early environmental movement in South Africa was primarily made up of conservation groups whose membership was dominated by affluent whites. [1] Many of these groups advocated for forms of fortress conservation that were used to justify forcibly removing Black South Africans from their land. Throughout the mid to late 20th century, justice-centered environmental groups sprung up in connection with anti-apartheid movements advocating for change on issues that affected the environment as well as the rights of workers and rural peoples, showing how environmental issues in the country were "inextricably linked to issues of race and politics." [2]

Contents

Issues

Since the early days of the environmental movement, protection of wildlife and natural landscapes has been a major area of focus, however as the environmental movement has become more justice-focused, it has shifted from advocating for fortress conversation policies to endorsing community-based conservation strategies, which have been implemented in some areas with varying degrees of efficacy. [2] Historically, many key environmental issues in the country were not explicitly framed as environmental issues by social movements, but rather as issues of "service delivery," which encompass the provision of housing, water, sanitation, and electricity services by national and municipal governments. [3] Some environmental groups have addressed the intersections between the environment, urban living conditions, and occupational health and safety. Environmental movements in the country have also increasingly focused on combatting climate climate change and making decarbonization, sustainable development, and climate justice political priorities in the country.

Mining

Mining is one of the major industries in South Africa. The country is the world's largest producer of chrome, manganese, platinum, vanadium and vermiculite, and is the second largest producer of ilmenite, palladium, rutile and zirconium. [4] It is also the world's fifth largest coal exporter. [5] While Native South Africans had been mining gold and other minerals for centuries in the region, industrialized mining began in the late 19th century driven by colonial governments and companies. [6] These new mines employed a primarily Black workforce, shifting the Native population from relying on subsidence agriculture for their livelihoods to becoming dependent on wage labor. Working conditions in mines were dangerous with exposure to environmental hazards such as rock bursts and an extremely and hot poorly ventilated conditions. Tuberculosis was also able to spread easily among mine workers due to the poor ventilation. Asbestos mining caused severe lung damage to miners and surrounding communities. Sulfuric acid from mines also leads to pollution of surrounding groundwater, which for many communities is an important drinking water source. [3]

Energy supply

See also South African energy crisis

South Africa's energy supply crisis, or load shedding, is an ongoing period of widespread national blackouts of electricity supply. It began in the later months of 2007 towards the end of Thabo Mbeki's second term as president, and continues through the present. The South African government-owned national power utility and primary power generator, Eskom, and various parliamentarians attributed these rolling blackouts to insufficient generation capacity. [7]

The blackouts have had a wide range of impact on residents including limiting hospital services, increasing food insecurity and water scarcity, and increasing unemployment rates. The issue is connected to debates surrounding climate change and the country's transition to renewable energy since the majority of the nation's electricity currently comes from coal fire power plants. Bureaucratic delays and corruption have delayed the transition to renewables, worsening the power supply crisis. [8]

Water access

Inequitable water and sanitation access have long been issues in South Africa. Amid droughts exacerbated by climate change, the country currently faces a water crisis. The situation is especially dire for rural populations, 19% of whom lack consistent access to water and 33% of whom lack access to basic sanitation services. [9] Although the right to water is a guaranteed under the law, this often not the case on the ground. In 2000, water distribution was decentralized and is now controlled by municipal governments, which makes it more difficult for those outside larger municipalities to be connected to water infrastructure. This change did lead to a net increase in the number of people with access to water infrastructure, with the number increasing by 20.8 million between 1994 and 2020. [3] However significant problems remain with the water system including broken or failing infrastructure, a lack of upkeep, and corruption in municipal governments. A notable example occurred in Mothutlung, a township in the North West Province, in 2013 when water tanks were brought in to deal with disruption of water supplies to households. Residents continually complained to local officials, but no action was taken, before they eventually discovered that municipal officials were deliberately delaying the repairs because they were shareholders in the water tank company being paid by the municipality. Protests ensued, and 4 protesters were killed by police. [3]

Key environmental justice organizations

While the environmental movement in South Africa has long operated in decentralized manner, three environmental justice organizations: groundWork South Africa, Earthlife Africa, and the Coalition for Environmental Justice have served as important hubs for organizers and played a role in shaping the direction of the movement. Many environmental NGOs have had to compete with each other for funding, especially amid a scarcity in international funding, although in recent years there have been efforts among environmental organizations to pool their resources, financial and otherwise. The ideological gap has also begun to close between traditional environmental organizations and environmental justice organizations as a response to critiques that conservationist movements were too elitist and did not address issues of concern to the majority of the population. [2]

Earthlife Africa

Earthlife Africa (ELA) is a South African environmental and anti-nuclear organisation founded in August 1988, in Johannesburg. Drawing inspiration from Greenpeace International, they sought to politicize conservation and connect it to other social inequalities. [2] The group addressed environmental issues began by playing a radical, anti-apartheid, activist role. ELA is arguably now more of a reformist lobby or pressure group. As a key voice in the environmental justice movement, Earthlife Africa has been criticized for being too radical, and by others for "working with traditional conservation movements" in furthering the environmental struggle.

Coalition for Environmental Justice (formerly the Environmental Justice Networking Forum)

Born out of an ELA conference in 1992, the Environmental Justice Networking Forum (EJNF) quickly became a prominent force in the environmental justice movement, taking on initiatives such as fighting against hazardous waste facilities in poor communities, [3] While the EJNF had success mobilizing rural populations, especially during the late 1990s and early 2000s, the organization was criticized by some for ignoring the pressing environmental justice issues facing urban communities. In 2006, it reestablished as the Coalition for Environmental Justice. [2]

groundWork South Africa

As South Africa's local affiliate of Friends of the Earth, groundWork South Africa was established in 1995 by three former EJNF members. [10] Their primary areas of focus are renewable energy and environmental health. They aim to address environmentalism through the lens of social equality and the creation of a more egalitarian society, focusing on addressing the needs of vulnerable populations. They both partner with local community organizations and conduct legislative advocacy. [11]

Environment + Politics

During apartheid, while political parties were banned, environmental groups served as an outlet for activism and political expression. After the end of apartheid, many radical environmentalists were absorbed into the governing African National Congress (ANC), while some chose to continue pursuing activism or advocacy through non-governmental organizations. During Nelson Mandela's presidency (1994-1999) there were higher levels of cooperation between environmental non-governmental organizations and national government, but during the Thabo Mbeki presidency (1999-2008) tensions arose between environmental groups and the ANC. Mbeki favored non-governmental organizations that focused on delivering direct aid to struggling populations, whereas environmental movements were focused on pursuing social and political change. [2] Lack of transparency and public participation in government decision making remain a source of conflict between environmental organizations and political officials.

Green parties

Unlike many Global North countries which saw large movements for the establishment of green parties beginning in the 1970s, the movement to establish a green party in South Africa in the late 1980s and early 1990s never reached mainstream success. Several green parties were started in the country during that period, although none became influential in national politics. In 1989, the Ecology Party, the country's first green party was established, but it disbanded shortly thereafter. [12] In 1992, activists in Capetown launched the Green Party, but it too disbanded after a disastrous election campaign in 1994. [12] Judy Sole, a nature resort developer, then founded the Government of the People Green Party in 1999. [13] ECOPEACE, a socialist environmentalist party founded in 1995 won a seat on the eThekwini Municipal Council in 2000, and its sister organization, Operation Khanyisa Movement (OKM) won a seat on the Johannesburg City Council in 2006. [14]

National legislation

See South African Environmental Law

South Africa's Constitution, ratified in 1996, enshrines the right to a safe and healthy environment, and the right of future generations to have a protected environment though conservation and the curbing of pollution. It also committed to more equitable distribution of land. [15]

Two pieces of landmark environmental legislation, the Environmental Management Act and the National Water Act, both passed in 1998. The Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP), which passed in 1994 promised increased service delivery that would meet the needs of all people. However, in a few short years, the RDP would be replaced with Growth, Employment, and Redistribution (GEAR) which was more focused on economic growth than addressing social issues. [3]

International agreements

In 2002, South Africa hosted the Rio+10 World Summit on Sustainable Development which was held in Johannesburg, the main outcome of which was the Johannesburg declaration. In the lead up to the event, there was conflict among environmental organizations about whether hosting the summit was a valuable endeavor or whether it was a distraction from pressing domestic environmental policy concerns. [2]

Timeline

Green Pages Greenpages.jpeg
Green Pages

Colonial Era

Apartheid Era

Post-Apartheid Era

Climate change protesters in Durban participate in the 2011 Global Day of Action Create a Climate for Justice Balloon (6466290521).jpg
Climate change protesters in Durban participate in the 2011 Global Day of Action
Extinction Rebellion protesting coal in South Africa Coald power stations kills more than 2,200 South Africans every year.jpg
Extinction Rebellion protesting coal in South Africa

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental movement in the United States</span> Organized environmental movement in the US

The organized environmental movement is represented by a wide range of non-governmental organizations or NGOs that seek to address environmental issues in the United States. They operate on local, national, and international scales. Environmental NGOs vary widely in political views and in the ways they seek to influence the environmental policy of the United States and other governments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmentalist</span> Someone who supports the goals of the environmental movement

An environmentalist is a person who is concerned with and/or advocates for the protection of the environment. An environmentalist can be considered a supporter of the goals of the environmental movement, "a political and ethical movement that seeks to improve and protect the quality of the natural environment through changes to environmentally harmful human activities". An environmentalist is engaged in or believes in the philosophy of environmentalism or one of the related philosophies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental movement</span> Movement for addressing environmental issues

The environmental movement is a social movement that aims to protect the natural world from harmful environmental practices in order to create sustainable living. Environmentalists advocate the just and sustainable management of resources and stewardship of the environment through changes in public policy and individual behavior. In its recognition of humanity as a participant in ecosystems, the movement is centered on ecology, health, as well as human rights.

The following outline is provided as an overview and topical guide to green politics:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental racism</span> Environmental injustice that occurs within a racialized context

Environmental racism, ecological racism, or ecological apartheid is a form of racism leading to negative environmental outcomes such as landfills, incinerators, and hazardous waste disposal disproportionately impacting communities of color, violating substantive equality. Internationally, it is also associated with extractivism, which places the environmental burdens of mining, oil extraction, and industrial agriculture upon indigenous peoples and poorer nations largely inhabited by people of color.

The Green Belt Movement (GBM) is an indigenous grassroots organization in Kenya that empowers women through the planting of trees. It is one of the most effective and well-known grassroots organisations addressing the problem of global deforestation. Professor Wangari Maathai established the organization in 1977 under the auspices of the National Council of Women of Kenya (NCWK). GBM's successes in forest conservation, education, and women's economic empowerment have gained the organisation worldwide acclaim. It is also noted for its advocacy of human rights, democratisation of access to public lands, and environmental justice issues such as the role of women's traditional ecological knowledge in addressing environmental degradation and desertification.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">ECOPEACE Party</span> Political party in South Africa

The ECOPEACE Party is a national environmentalist political party in South Africa founded in 1995. The party was formerly known as eThekwini ECOPEACE and eThekwini Ecoparty—eThekwini is the Zulu name for Durban, where the party is based. The Zulu party motto is Buhlakuleni uButhi, Yitshaleni iMithi, which translates to "Uproot Poisons, Replant Trees ".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Australian Conservation Foundation</span> Australias national environmental organisation

The Australian Conservation Foundation (ACF) is Australia's national environmental organisation, launched in 1965 in response to a proposal by the World Wide Fund for Nature for a more co-ordinated approach to sustainability.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental justice</span> Social movement

Environmental justice or eco-justice, is a social movement to address environmental injustice, which occurs when poor or marginalized communities are harmed by hazardous waste, resource extraction, and other land uses from which they do not benefit. The movement has generated hundreds of studies showing that exposure to environmental harm is inequitably distributed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmentalism</span> Philosophy about Earth protection

Environmentalism or environmental rights is a broad philosophy, ideology, and social movement about supporting life, habitats, and surroundings. While environmentalism focuses more on the environmental and nature-related aspects of green ideology and politics, ecologism combines the ideology of social ecology and environmentalism. Ecologism is more commonly used in continental European languages, while environmentalism is more commonly used in English but the words have slightly different connotations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Earthlife Africa</span> South African environmental organization

Earthlife Africa is a South African environmental and anti-nuclear organisation founded in August 1988, in Johannesburg. Initially conceived of as a South African version of Greenpeace, the group began by playing a radical, anti-apartheid, activist role. ELA is arguably now more of a reformist lobby or pressure group. Considered by some to be a key voice in the emerging environmental justice movement, Earthlife Africa has been criticised for being too radical, and by others for "working with traditional conservation movements" in furthering the environmental struggle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Federation of Green Parties of Africa</span>

The Federation of Green Parties of Africa is an umbrella body of the various national Green parties and environmental parties in Africa. The formal coalition, the African Greens Federation (AGF) formed in 2010 at a conference in Kampala, Uganda. As part of the Global Greens, founded in 2001 in Canberra, Australia, the parties included in the Federation of Green Parties of Africa follow the Global Greens Charter. The organization's permanent administration is in Ouagadougou, the capital of Burkina Faso, where the predominant green organization is the Rassemblement Des Ecologistes du Burkina Faso. These parties tend to, but not always, be left-leaning and often do not have widespread support in their respective countries.

The Koeberg Alert alliance is an anti-nuclear activist organisation which emerged from an earlier pressure group in Cape Town called "Stop Koeberg" in 1983. Both were intended to halt construction of the first nuclear power station in South Africa at Duynefontein, 28 km NNW of Cape Town: the Koeberg Nuclear Power Station.

The Cape Town Ecology Group was a South Africa-based radical environmental group, founded in 1987, as a "child of Koeberg Alert", and active until the early 1990s. It espoused a more political-oriented green ideology as opposed to the apartheid-based conservation groups of the time. According to founder Mike Cope: "We felt the need to view ecological issues on a broader level and recognised the connection between politics and ecology. Ecology is definitely a political issue because environmental issues are about where we live."

Green conservatism is a combination of conservatism with environmentalism. Environmental concern has been voiced by both conservative politicians and philosophers throughout the history of conservatism. One of the most prominent early philosophers of conservatism, Edmund Burke, in his Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), argued: "The earth, the kind and equal mother of all ought not to be monopolised to foster the pride and luxury of any men."

The Korea Federation for Environmental Movements (KFEM) is a non-profit organization in South Korea that focuses on environmentalism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental movement in Australia</span>

Beginning as a conservation movement, the environmental movement in Australia was the first in the world to become a political movement. Australia is home to United Tasmania Group, the world's first green party.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Global Greens</span> International organization of political parties

The Global Greens (GG) is an international network of political parties and movements which work to implement the Global Greens Charter. It consists of various national green political parties, partner networks, and other organizations associated with green politics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alon Tal</span> Israeli politician, activist, and academic

Alon Tal is an Israeli environmental politician, academic and activist. He was a member of the 24th Knesset between 2021 and 2022, representing the Blue and White political party; founder of the Israel Union for Environmental Defense and the Arava Institute for Environmental Studies; and co-founder of Ecopeace: Friends of the Earth–Middle East, This Is My Earth, the Israel Forum for Demography, Environment and Society, Aytzim: Ecological Judaism, and the Green Movement. Tal was appointed chair of the Department of Public Policy at Tel Aviv University in 2017.

References

  1. ↑ Khan, Farieda. 2001: 'Towards Environmentalism: A Socio-political Evaluation of Trends in South African Conservation History, 1910-1976, with a specific focus on the Role of Black Conservation Organisations'. PhD Thesis, University of Cape Town.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Khan, Farieda. 2014: 'Race, Politics, and the Environment in South Africa- Trends in the History of Environmental Civil Society Organisations'. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Farieda-Khan/publication/316240934_Race_Politics_and_the_Environment_in_South_Africa_-_Trends_in_the_History_of_Environmental_Civil_Society_Organisations/links/58f73a17a6fdcc187f3bd741/Race-Politics-and-the-Environment-in-South-Africa-Trends-in-the-History-of-Environmental-Civil-Society-Organisations
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Knight, Jasper (2 September 2023). "Environment, Power, and Justice: Southern African Histories, edited by Graeme Wynn, Jane Carruthers and Nancy J. Jacobs, Athens, Ohio, Ohio University Press, 2022, xii + 354 pp". Canadian Journal of African Studies. 57 (3): 767–768. doi:10.1080/00083968.2023.2250136. ISSN   0008-3968.
  4. ↑ Survey, U. S. Geological (2024). Mineral commodity summaries 2024 (Report). U.S. Geological Survey.
  5. ↑ "COAL IN SOUTH AFRICA" (PDF). Eskom. August 2021.
  6. ↑ "Benchmarks: October 11, 1899: Second Boer War begins, fueled by discovery of gold". EARTH Magazine. 7 September 2018.
  7. ↑ Rathi, Anusha (8 July 2022). "Why South Africa Is in the Dark, Again". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 4 May 2024.
  8. ↑ "Will South Africa's Power Crisis Sink Its Green Ambitions?". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved 4 May 2024.
  9. ↑ "Water Crisis In South Africa". Greenpeace Africa. Retrieved 4 May 2024.
  10. ↑ Peek, Bobby (May 2019). "groundWork Environmental Justice Action Climate Change Letter to South African President Cyril Ramaphosa, December 2018". New Solutions. 29 (1): 112–115. Bibcode:2019NewSo..29..112P. doi:10.1177/1048291119835446. ISSN   1048-2911. PMID   30866725.
  11. ↑ "About Us". groundWork. Retrieved 5 May 2024.
  12. 1 2 3 Kotzé, Hendrik Jakobus; Anneke Greyling (1994). Political organizations in South Africa A-Z (2 ed.). Tafelberg. ISBN   0-624-03261-2.
  13. 1 2 Sawyer, Clive (19 May 1999). "South Africa: Small challengers with big ideas". Cape Argus.
  14. ↑ "IEC (Electoral Commission of South Africa)". Elections.org.za.
  15. ↑ "The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa | South African Government". www.gov.za. Retrieved 4 May 2024.
  16. 1 2 3 4 "History | South African Government". www.gov.za. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
  17. ↑ Pincetl, Stephanie S. (October 1991). "The Global Environmental Movement: Reclaiming paradise". Political Geography Quarterly. 10 (4): 438–439. doi:10.1016/0260-9827(91)90008-i.
  18. 1 2 Pringle, John A. (1982). The Conservationists and the Killers: The Story of Game Protection and the Wildlife Society of Southern Africa. Cape Town: T.V. Bulpin & Books of Africa. ISBN   9780949956231.
  19. ↑ Khan, Farieda (1994). "Rewriting South Africa's Conservation History-The Role of the Native Farmers Association". Journal of Southern African Studies. 20 (4): 499–516. doi:10.1080/03057079408708417. JSTOR   2636969.
  20. ↑ Stull, Valerie; Bell, Michael M.; Ncwadi, Mpumelelo (1 October 2016). "Environmental apartheid: Eco-health and rural marginalization in South Africa". Journal of Rural Studies. 47: 369–380. Bibcode:2016JRurS..47..369S. doi:10.1016/j.jrurstud.2016.04.004. ISSN   0743-0167.
  21. ↑ South Africa Department of Education (2005). "History of the Freedom Charter" (PDF). Department of Environmental Affairs.
  22. 1 2 "About KAA". KOEBERG ALERT ALLIANCE. 18 May 2011. Retrieved 30 April 2024.
  23. ↑ "Dolphin Action and Protection Group". Archived from the original on 30 April 2024. Retrieved 30 April 2024.
  24. ↑ Fynbos Fynmense: people making biodiversity work (12.4 MB) 2006. A. Ashwell, T. Sandwith, M. Barnett, A. Parker & F. Wisani. ISBN 1-919976-29-9. 187. https://www.cepf.net/sites/default/files/c.a.p.e.report.chapter6.pages185-206.pdf
  25. ↑ "Environmental Justice Case Study: Thor Chemicals and Mercury Exposure in".
  26. ↑ Lewis, D R, "Environment and Economics go together?", South Environment, Sept 19-25, 1991, p20
  27. ↑ McDonald, David A. (1998). "Three Steps Forward, Two Steps Back: Ideology & Urban Ecology in South Africa". Review of African Political Economy. 25 (75): 73–88. doi:10.1080/03056249808704293. hdl: 10.1080/03056249808704293 . JSTOR   4006360.
  28. ↑ Cock, Jacklyn (2004) "Connecting the red, brown and green: The environmental justice movement in South Africa" (PDF). Centre for Civil Society, University of KwaZulu-Natal. Retrieved March 23, 2024.
  29. ↑ "Environmental Rights [1995] ZAConAsmRes 208 (23 January 1995)". www.saflii.org. Retrieved 30 April 2024.
  30. ↑ "The SA Constitution". www.justice.gov.za. Retrieved 30 April 2024.
  31. ↑ "About Us". groundWork. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
  32. ↑ "Short Review of the COP-15 Conference in Copenhagen - LAS-ANS" (in Brazilian Portuguese). 8 April 2009. Retrieved 30 April 2024.
  33. ↑ South African International Energy Conference, Conference Report. 2015 . https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/SAIREC_Report_Final.pdf
  34. ↑ Garland, Rebecca, South African court rules that clean air is a constitutional right https://theconversation.com/south-african-court-rules-that-clean-air-is-a-constitutional-right-what-needs-to-change-179706
  35. ↑ Vlavianos, Chris, Communities celebrate as Court sets aside Shell's exploration right off the Wild Coast of South Africahttps://www.greenpeace.org/africa/en/press/52171/press-release-communities-celebrate-as-court-sets-aside-shells-exploration-right-off-the-wild-coast-of-south-africa/
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.