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During World War I, Ethiopia briefly forged an alliance with the Allied Powers, following Italy's entry into the war in 1915. In June 1916, a dynastic conflict emerged when the uncrowned Emperor, Lij Iyasu, was alleged to have converted to Islam under the influence of the Ottoman Empire, which led him to be charged with apostasy. [1] As a result, then-regent Ras Tafari Mekonnen, later known as Emperor Haile Selassie, orchestrated a coup d'état in September, deposing Lij Iyasu and installing Empress Zewditu on the throne[ citation needed ]. Throughout the war, Empress Zewditu maintained a stance of neutrality.
In May 1918, the Allies commended Ethiopia's diplomatic missions to Rome, Paris, and London. While Britain and Italy voiced strong opposition, France extended support for Ethiopia's sovereignty and its admission to the League of Nations. [2] In 1923, Ethiopia joined the League of Nations.
Since the Middle Ages, Ethiopia, a predominantly Christian nation, maintained significant diplomatic ties with various European monarchies, frequently exchanging embassies with Portugal, the Vatican, and Russia. [3] In 1841, following British presence in Aden, the first Anglo-Ethiopian agreement was signed. [4] During the late 19th century, Ethiopia was recognised under international law by European powers as a member of the "family of nations", setting it apart from other African countries.
In 1884, Negus Menelik II signed the Hewett Treaty with Britain, granting Ethiopia access to the British sphere of influence on the Nile. [5] Additionally, in 1889, Menelik II signed a treaty with Italy after Italy's takeover of Eritrea, aiming to foster positive relations between the two nations. Historians have highlighted this rapprochement "as Ethiopia's success... [having] actively participated as the only African state in the partitioning of the continent". Menelik II considered himself equal to his European counterparts, referring to them as his "brothers". [6]
Menelik later disagreed over the interpretation of the Italian word for "protectorate" in the Treaty of Wuchale, leading to the Battle of Adwa in 1896. [7] Following Ethiopia's victorious defense against Italy and the re-establishment of its sovereignty, Menelik II embarked on a mission to compete with neighbouring European powers—Britain, Italy, and France—both to benefit Ethiopia and to reaffirm imperial power. This endeavour involved implementing ministries in 1905 and 1906. As a result, eight major powers—Great Britain, France, Italy, Russia, the United States, Germany, and the Ottoman Empire—established legations in Addis Ababa and enhanced their consular jurisdiction over Ethiopia. Consequently, Ethiopia became an active participant in the shaping of international politics, as perceived in the Western world. In 1907, Ethiopia initiated diplomatic missions to Budapest, Vienna, and Berlin. [8]
In 1906, Sir Harrington, the British Minister to Addis Ababa, proposed a memorandum to Menelik, suggesting the dispatch of a European legal advisor to Ethiopia. Many historians view this proposal as an attempt to establish "semi-colonial" relations or exert "semi-colonial control" over Ethiopia. By 1905, Ethiopia had achieved a significant level of equality with the international community through diplomatic accomplishments, such as the establishment of legations and the signing of numerous international conventions.
After the death of Emperor Menelik II in 1913, the uncrowned Emperor Lij Iyasu assumed power in Addis Ababa, despite facing political opposition due to his views on European influence and alternative power structures. [9] At the onset of World War I, French and British representatives sought the support of the Ethiopian crown prince as a counter against their German counterparts. Rumours circulated that Ethiopia might intentionally join the war, potentially gaining access to the Red Sea via Italian Eritrea. Because of diplomatic ties to the Central Powers since 1882, by virtue of the Triple Alliance, Ethiopia would attack Eritrea as the Italian feared. [10] [ clarification needed ]
During previous conflicts in Europe, Ethiopian elites employed a multilateral approach. However, Ethiopia maintained its neutrality in this war, though foreign representatives and the Ethiopian government experienced a number of disputes regarding this stance. The Ethiopian government adhered to the principles outlined in the Hague Convention of 1907, which governed the rights and obligations of neutral powers and individuals during land warfare. In August 1914, representatives of the Allied powers pressured the Ethiopian government to restrict the usage of communication facilities, and the railway to French Djibouti, for citizens of the Central Powers residing in Ethiopia.
When Italy joined the Allied Powers in April 1915, Ethiopia found itself surrounded by countries involved in the conflict against Germany and its allies, including the Ottoman Empire and its Yemeni colony along the Red Sea. During 1915 and 1916, there Ethiopia appeared noticeably sympathetic towards the Central Powers. The Central Powers, in coordination with Turkish support, aimed to open a new front against the British in Sudan, Somalia, and Libya. Ethiopia played an important role in this strategy by supplying weapons to the Sanussi and Mohammed Abdullah Hassan. As part of their plan to attack the Suez Canal, the Central Powers promised Ethiopia control over the trading post at sea. Furthermore, the Germans hoped to alleviate the pressure caused by attacks from Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck's troops in German East Africa.
The Allies were aware of the German and Turkish intention to exploit pan-Islamist rhetoric and propaganda in the Arab world. In June 1916, the Turkish Consul, Ahmed Mazher bey, distributed leaflets in Addis Ababa, stating that "[t]he interests of Islam in this country concur with those of the Abyssinian Government". [11] There were rumors and concerns about the crown prince converting or having already converted to Islam. Lij Iyasu's amicable relationship with the Turkish consul and Muslim leaders in Harar and Somalia heightened fears in the British and French legations.[ citation needed ] Despite the Ethiopian Minister of War having officially declared Ethiopia a neutral country, Lij Iyasu appeared to favor a Central Powers' victory. The British continued their efforts to sway neutral parties towards the Allied Powers by providing troops and utilising Lij Iyasu's cousin, Ras Tafari Mekonnen (later Emperor Haile Selassie), as a mediator. Ras Tefari Mekonnen, who was a rival of Lij Iyasu, successfully carried out a coup d'état on September 26, 1916. The coup was supported by the Allied Powers, who claimed that Lij Iyasu had converted to Islam,[ citation needed ] although there was no concrete evidence of his apostasy or formal conversion.
As the Allies gained control of the region in 1916, Ras Tafari Mekonnen became aware of Lij Iyasu's alliance with Ottoman Turkey. Lij Iyasu was promptly arrested but managed to briefly escape from prison before being recaptured and returned to custody. [12] When Empress Zewditu assumed the throne in 1916, Ethiopia adopted a policy of neutrality during the war, and the government prohibited Ethiopian troops from participating alongside the Allies in accordance with the Hague Convention of 1907.
During this period, Ethiopian farmers began selling cattle to meat factories in Eritrea, which were then transported to Italian forces there. In May 1917, the German party from the legation in Addis Ababa attempted to cross the Red Sea to establish communication with the Turkish Army. The French legate subsequently accused the Ethiopian government and subsequent German captives in Djibouti of flagrant violations of neutrality. [13]
In June 1917, under pressure from Ras Tafari Mekonnen, Ethiopia terminated its diplomatic relations with the Central Powers but requested 16,000 modern rifles. The Italians persuaded their allies of the importance of maintaining friendly relations with neutral Ethiopia but were cautious about making claims regarding its sovereignty during peace negotiations. Consequently, Ethiopia's offer was declined. By late 1918, the Ethiopian government congratulated the Allies on their victory, but the German legate's presence in Ethiopia persisted.
In May 1918, the Allies commended the Ethiopian mission in Rome, Paris, and London. While France favored Ethiopia's inclusion in the League of Nations, Italy and Britain reluctantly opposed granting Ethiopian statehood. Finally, in 1923, Ethiopia was admitted to the League of Nations, becoming the only independent African nation to achieve this status. The country continued to conduct robust diplomatic missions to safeguard its independence. [14]
Haile Selassie I was Emperor of Ethiopia from 1930 to 1974. He rose to power as Regent Plenipotentiary of Ethiopia (Enderase) for Empress Zewditu from 1916 until 1930. Haile Selassie is widely considered a defining figure in modern Ethiopian history, and the major figure of Rastafari, a religious movement in Jamaica that emerged shortly after he became emperor in the 1930s. Before he rose to power he defeated Ras Gugsa Welle Bitul of Begemder at the Battle of Anchem in 1928. He was a member of the Solomonic dynasty, which claims to trace its lineage to Emperor Menelik I, a legendary figure believed by the claimants to be the son of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, who they name as Makeda.
Menelik II, baptised as Sahle Maryam was king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia from 1889 to his death in 1913. At the height of his internal power and external prestige, the process of territorial expansion and creation of the modern empire-state was completed by 1898.
Lij Iyasu was the designated Emperor of Ethiopia from 1913 to 1916. His baptismal name was Kifle Yaqob. Ethiopian emperors traditionally chose their regnal name on the day they were crowned, and since he was never crowned, he is usually referred to as Lij Iyasu, "Lij" meaning child, especially one born of royal blood.
Taytu Betul was Empress of Ethiopia from 1889 to 1913 and the third wife of Emperor Menelik II. An influential figure in the anti-colonial resistance during the late 19th-century Scramble for Africa, she, along with her husband, founded the modern Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa in 1886.
Zewditu was Empress of Ethiopia from 1916 until her death in 1930. The first female head of an internationally recognized country in Africa in the 19th and 20th centuries, and the first and only empress regnant of the Ethiopian Empire, her reign was noted for the reforms of her Regent and designated heir Ras Tafari Makonnen, about which she was at best ambivalent and often stridently opposed, due to her staunch conservatism and strong religious devotion. She is the most recent empress regnant, as well as the last female Ethiopian head of state until the 2018 election of Sahle-Work Zewde as president.
Until the end of the Ethiopian monarchy in 1974, there were two categories of nobility in Ethiopia and Eritrea. The Mesafint, the hereditary royal nobility, formed the upper echelon of the ruling class. The Mekwanint were the appointed nobles, often of humble birth, who formed the bulk of the aristocracy. Until the 20th century, the most powerful people at court were generally members of the Mekwanint appointed by the monarch, while regionally, the Mesafint enjoyed greater influence and power. Emperor Haile Selassie greatly curtailed the power of the Mesafint to the benefit of the Mekwanint, who by then were essentially coterminous with the Ethiopian government.
RasMengesha Yohannes was governor of Tigray and a son of Emperor Yohannes IV. His mother was Welette Tekle Haymanot wife of dejazmach Gugsa Mercha. Ras Araya Selassie Yohannes was his younger half brother. Prior to the Battle of Metemma, Mengesha Yohannes was considered to be a nephew of Emperor Yohannes IV. During the battle, the Emperor was mortally wounded and it was on his deathbed that Mengesha Yohannes was acknowledged as his "natural" son and designated as his heir. This created something of a succession problem.
RasDesta Damtew KBE was an Ethiopian noble, an army commander, and a son-in-law of Emperor Haile Selassie I. He is known for his leadership in the Ethiopian Army during the Second Italo-Ethiopian War. He was executed on 24 February 1937, by the Italian Armed Forces shortly after Ethiopia's loss in the war.
Prince (Abeto Lij)Girma Yohannes Iyasu is the Iyasuist claimant to the throne of Ethiopian Empire. He is also known by the name Girma Amente Ghebresillasie.
Gugsa Welle, also known as Gugsa Wale, Gugsa Wolie and Gugsa Wele, was an army commander and a member of the imperial family of the Ethiopian Empire. He represented a provincial ruling elite which was often at odds with the Ethiopian central government.
Tekle Hawariat Tekle Mariyam was an Ethiopian politician, an Amhara aristocrat and intellectual of the Japanizer school of thought. He was the primary author of the 16 July 1931 constitution of Ethiopia, which was influenced by the Japanese Meiji Constitution.
NegusMikael of Wollo, was an army commander and a member of the nobility of the Ethiopian Empire. He was the father of the "uncrowned" Emperor Lij Iyasu, and the grandfather of Empress Menen, wife of Emperor Haile Selassie. He changed his name to Mikael upon converting to Christianity.
Hailu Tekle Haymanot, also named Hailu II of Gojjam, was an army commander and a member of the nobility of the Ethiopian Empire. He represented a provincial ruling elite who were often at odds with the Ethiopian central government. Hailu Tekle Haymanot was an independent-minded potentate who, throughout his life, was mistrustful of and mistrusted by the Emperor.
Mersha Nahusenay was an Ethiopian reformist and pioneer of change who made important contributions to the modernization and independence of Ethiopia. One of the closest advisors to Emperor Menelik II, he went on to become the first governor of Dire Dawa, and surrounding areas (1902–1905). Prior to that he was governor of the strategic and frontier district of Jaldessa (Gildessa) and its environ where he also held the key position of Head of Customs. His public career lasted over three decades from the time of Menelik II until the reign of Haile Selassie. Mersha understood French and was open to European ideas of progress earning him admiration abroad. His most enduring legacy is perhaps the supervision of the day to day activities of the construction, maintenance and security of the first railroad which he oversaw at the request of Menilek. Mersha belongs to a generation of Ethiopians who took advantage of the relative stability of the late 19th – early 20th century to implement a series of wide-ranging political, military, economic and social reforms, paving the way to the founding of present-day Ethiopia.
Leul Sagad Atnaf Sagad, also known by his horse name Abba Balay, was an Ethiopian courtier and army commander (Ras) under Emperor Menelik II. A key figure in late 19th and early 20th century, he was responsible for several successful military campaigns, but was killed in battle during the struggle over Menelik's succession.
LijSeifu Mikael was an Ethiopian noble, member of the Solomonic dynasty, belonging to the aristocratic Amhara family from Ankober Shewa. He was the grandson of Dejazmatch Mekuria Tesfaye of Menz, a prominent general, a cousin of Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia, and grandson of King Sahle Selassie of Shewa. Lij Seifu, a public figure, was educated in Paris at the Sorbonne. He was one of the first few earlier members of the royalty who started paying salaries to their household servants advocating freedom of slaves and an avid supporter of Ras Tafari in his bid to become an emperor of Ethiopia. He served as Ethiopia's minister to France and Germany while he lived in Europe in the 1910s, Ethiopia's Consul General to Eritrea from 1921 to 1925 and Governor of several districts till the eve of the fascist invasion of Ethiopia.
The Seventh German Inner Africa Research Expedition was led by German ethnologist and archaeologist Leo Frobenius in October 1914-March 1915. Though referred to as the seventh of Frobenius' scientific expeditions to Africa it was a front for a German military espionage mission to Ethiopia. The objective was to restore communications with the German legation at Addis Ababa; persuade Ethiopian Emperor Lij Iyasu to support the Central Powers in the First World War and to proceed to Anglo-Egyptian Sudan to provoke an uprising there. This could have threatened British and Italian colonies in Eastern Africa and possibly the vital supply route of the Suez Canal.
Friedrich Salomon Hall (1879–1964) was a German citizen with connections to Ethiopia. His parents lived in Ethiopia and served its emperor until they fell out of favour and moved to the Middle East after being rescued by the 1868 British Expedition to Abyssinia. Hall, born in the Middle East, moved to Ethiopia to join his mother who had returned there to serve the Royal Court. He became a hotel proprietor and tutor to Emperor Lij Iyassu. Hall afterwards left to act as an assistant to Julius Löytved-Hardegg, a German consul to the Ottoman Empire. During the early part of World War I Hall attempted to return to Ethiopia to negotiate with Lij Iyassu for Ethiopia's entry into the war. The espionage mission was disguised as the Seventh German Inner Africa Research Expedition but was detected by Italian authorities en-route and the participants returned home. Hall blamed the expedition leader Leo Frobenius for its failure. Hall attempted a second mission to carry messages to the German legation at Addis Ababa in June 1915 but was captured by the Italians and imprisoned for the remainder of the war.
Welde Giyorgis Aboye was one of the most prominent Ethiopian generals who spearheaded Emperor Menelik's southward expansion at the close of the 19th century. His fame soared after leading the conquest on the Kingdom of Kaffa as a Ras, and was subsequently appointed as provincial governor of that fief by the Emperor. Welde Giyorgis later became the governor of Begemder. A few months before his death, he was elevated to Negus, of Gondar by Empress Zewditu in 1917, as recognition for his role in deposing Lij Iyasu.
This is a chronology of the lifetime of Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie.
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