Gender inequalities in France affect several areas, including family life, education, employment, health, and political participation.
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) monitors gender disparities through the Gender Inequality Index (GII), which evaluates reproductive health, empowerment, and labor market participation.
Women in France perform approximately 64% of household labor. [1] Between 1966 and 1986, men's participation in domestic tasks increased slightly but has remained largely unchanged since. Task distribution becomes more unequal in households with two or more children, with men's involvement decreasing by about 10%. [2] A study by INED reports that 30% of men primarily manage household chores; however, this figure does not include the 15% of children involved in family court proceedings following separation, in which fathers may take on increased caregiving and domestic responsibilities. [3] According to a 2010 INSEE study, women spend an average of 3 hours and 26 minutes per day on domestic tasks, compared to 2 hours for men. [4] [5]
Child custody is contested in approximately 18% of divorces. [6] In about 90% of cases, custody is awarded to the mother, with few fathers requesting custody. [7] Custody is awarded to fathers in about 8% of cases. [8] Post-divorce, women experience a greater decline in standard of living compared to men. Following separation, approximately one-third of women and one-half of men enter new partnerships. Shared custody arrangements are becoming more common and now account for about 10% of divorce cases. [6]
In 2010, women in France spent an average of 3 hours and 46 minutes per day on leisure activities, compared to 4 hours and 24 minutes for men. This difference is primarily attributed to disparities in time spent on activities such as gaming, internet use, and sports. [9]
According to sociologist Sibylle Gollac (2020), in households with children, men worked an average of 51 hours per week, with two-thirds of that time being paid work. Women worked an average of 54 hours per week, with two-thirds of that time consisting of unpaid work. [10]
Women obtained the legal right to work without spousal authorization under the law of July 13, 1965 , which came into effect on 1 February 1966. [11]
As of recent data (excluding Mayotte), 68.2% of women aged 15–64 were active in the labor market, compared to 75.8% of men in the same age group. [12]
According to a CFTC report, 49% of women reported that having a child significantly affected their employment situation, compared to 14% of men. These effects may include job changes, reductions in working hours, or parental leave. [13]
In 2007, women represented 45% of the active workforce (approximately 11.2 million) and had an unemployment rate of 9.1%, compared to 7.8% for men. By 2012, unemployment rose to 10% for women and 9.7% for men. Since 2014, the male unemployment rate has exceeded that of women, according to INSEE data. [14]
Approximately half of all women are employed. Women represent 76% of employees but only 18% of manual workers. In the private sector, two-thirds of executive roles are held by men. Fewer than 20% of business leaders are women. [15]
Around 11% of women hold temporary positions—such as fixed-term contracts, or subsidized jobs—compared to 8% of all employees. [16]
Parenthood is reported as a factor that may influence employment trajectories. Some studies indicate that pregnancy and maternity leave can affect career progression. [17]
In 2021, the average annual salary in the private sector was €18,630 for women and €24,640 for men, reflecting a 24.4% gap. [12] This difference is partially attributed to variations in working hours, job types, and the prevalence of part-time work, which accounted for approximately 40% of the wage gap in 2017. [18] When adjusted to full-time equivalents, the average wage gap was 15.5% in 2021, down from 17.5% in 2016. [12]
The wage gap tends to increase with age: it was 4.6% at age 25 and rose to 27.5% among those over 60. Differences in working time decrease with age, from 20% under age 25 to 10% between ages 25 and 60. [19]
For workers, women earned 14.3% less than men for equivalent hours and worked 23.3% fewer hours. Among employees, women earned 4.7% less for similar hours and had nearly equal working time. The pay gap for equal hours was 16.1% among executives and 12.2% among intermediate professions, with women in these groups also working fewer hours (4.7% and 10.9%, respectively). [19]
For equivalent positions and working hours, the wage gap was 4.3%, though occupational segregation—such as differences in sector and employer—affects this figure. [19]
In the public sector, the overall gender wage gap was 14%. Among executives, the gap was 23%; among workers, 17%; and among employees, 7%. [4]
For full-time salaried positions, the gender wage gap declined from 29.4% in 1976 to 16.3% in 2017. The gap narrowed steadily until 1980, remained largely stable until 2000, and began to decrease again thereafter, though part-time employment among women influenced this trend. [18]
Approximately 30% of women in France work part-time, compared to 5% of men. Of the 4.1 million part-time workers, 83% are women. [20] The prevalence of part-time work among women is closely associated with the presence of young children in the household. Among part-time workers, 28% of women and 42% of men report working part-time involuntarily, indicating a preference for more working hours. [21]
Women are more frequently employed in lower-skilled positions. [12] In 2018, 25.9% of employed women held unskilled employee or laborer roles, compared to 15% of men. Conversely, 15.7% of employed women held executive positions, compared to 20.8% of men. [12]
Occupational segregation remains a key characteristic of the labor market. Service-related occupations, as well as teaching and cleaning jobs, are predominantly held by women. Highly skilled positions in the tertiary sector are more gender-balanced. [22]
Studies have found that women face more obstacles than men in accessing promotions and salary increases, a phenomenon referred to as the "glass ceiling." [23]
The Copé-Zimmermann Law of 27 January 2011 requires companies with more than 500 employees or annual revenues above €50 million to appoint at least 40% women to their boards of directors and supervisory boards. This requirement was later extended to include mutual insurance organizations under the insurance code. [24] As a result, women comprised 26% of board members in the 120 largest publicly traded companies in 2013, increasing to 43.6% by 2019. [25]
The Rixain Law, adopted in 2021, aims to increase women's representation in economic and professional leadership. It includes provisions for: [24]
Women are underrepresented in sectors associated with higher physical risks, which contributes to lower reported rates of workplace accidents. Fewer than 26% of non-fatal work accidents involve women. Similarly, women account for 25% of workplace accidents resulting in permanent disability. Fatal work accidents are substantially more common among men, with 25 times more men than women dying on the job. [26]
Men are more likely to be employed in positions with higher exposure to occupational health hazards. They account for two-thirds of occupational diseases leading to permanent disability. Deaths from occupational disease are over 80 times more common among men than women. [27]
Fewer than 25% of night shift positions are held by women. [28]
Gender-based differences in job type, role, sector, and working hours are among the primary contributors to the wage gap. An estimated 75% of the overall wage gap can be attributed to these structural factors, with working hours being the most influential. [29] Even when controlling for working time, educational background, professional experience, qualifications, region, sector, and job position, men’s salaries remain approximately 10% higher than those of women. [30]
Studies on gender and health remain limited. In the early 21st century, life expectancy in France was higher for women than men—85.3 years compared to 79.4 in 2018. [31] However, healthy life expectancy was similar, [32] with women at 64.5 years and men at 63.4 in 2018. Since 2004, healthy life expectancy has increased for men but remained stable for women. [31]
Historically, in Western societies, male and female health have been conceptualized differently. From Antiquity onward, the male body was viewed as the standard, while the female body was seen as a variation and more prone to illness. [31] Diagnoses and treatment have differed depending on the patient’s sex. [31] In 17th- and 18th-century Europe, women were more often diagnosed with nervous disorders. During this period, medical and state interests in reproduction led to increased study of the female body, particularly as a reproductive body, with a focus on the uterus. New professions, such as midwifery and obstetrics, developed in this context. [31] From the late 18th century onward, sexuality began to be medicalized. Behavioral norms were reframed in medical rather than religious terms, with differences in how male and female behavior were judged. For a prolonged period, women’s bodies and intellects were considered inferior in medical discourse, contributing to gendered hierarchies. [31] Women's health was often regarded as pathological or dysfunctional by default. [33]
Scientific research has also been shaped by gender bias. According to physician Robert Barouki (2023), research on women's health has historically been limited by social bias and an emphasis on male physiology. [33] French geneticist Claudine Junien noted in 2016 that France lagged behind other countries in integrating sex-based biological differences in research and treatment, though attention to gender parity in healthcare was increasing. [34]
Efforts to incorporate gender into medical research began in the late 1980s, primarily in the United States. [31] In 1995, the World Health Organization (WHO) established the Department of Gender and Women’s Health. [31] Several European countries followed in the early 2000s by creating research bodies focused on gender in medicine. [31] In France, the "Gender and Health Research" group was created at Inserm in 2013. [31] Public institutions such as French National Public Health Agency and the Haute Autorité de Santé (HAS) have since addressed gender disparities in research and treatment. [31]
Gender stereotypes influence both diagnosis and treatment practices for men and women. [35] Ancient theories, such as those of Hippocrates, perpetuated hierarchical models in which the female body was considered a deviation from the male norm—a view that persisted into the 19th century. [31] [36]
Some diseases are underdiagnosed in one sex due to stereotypical associations. [31] [37] For instance, women are less frequently and less accurately diagnosed with myocardial infarction, [31] [38] despite an increase in incidence among women between 2008 and 2013 (+20%). [31] Symptoms in women may differ from those in men and are less well-known or recognized. [39] [40] In 2015, cardiovascular disease accounted for 51% of deaths in women in Europe. [38] Similar disparities exist in other conditions. Women with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are diagnosed later than men, even though prevalence is now similar. [39] Women with autism spectrum disorders are often diagnosed late, which has been linked to significantly reduced life expectancy compared to neurotypical women. [40] Strokes, more common among women, also have more severe outcomes in women but were less studied in female patients as of 2017. [41] Conversely, some conditions such as osteoporosis are underdiagnosed in men, as the disease is often seen as predominantly affecting women. Despite this, men represent one-third of hip fractures and have a higher risk of complications. [35]
Historically, men’s pain has been treated as abnormal and requiring medical intervention, while women’s pain, especially related to menstruation and childbirth, was considered normal and often left untreated. [42] The perception of menstruation-related pain as natural—sometimes reinforced by religious narratives—contributed to this neglect. [43] [31] Pain relief in childbirth gradually advanced, with chemical anesthesia introduced in the 19th century, and techniques such as pain-free childbirth in 1950s France. Epidural anesthesia became common from the 1980s onward. [31] [43] Menstrual pain and conditions like endometriosis (affecting around 10% of women) have only been widely recognized by the medical profession since the late 2010s. [31] [37] Endometriosis was officially recognized as a medical condition in France in 1990. A national awareness plan was launched in 2019, and the disease was classified as a long-term illness in 2022. [40]
Some studies suggest that women may delay seeking care, often prioritizing family responsibilities and underestimating their symptoms. [40]
Historically, women were often excluded from clinical trials for reasons such as hormonal variability or concerns about pregnancy-related risks. This exclusion has limited understanding of how certain diseases and treatments affect women. [31] For example, women’s cardiovascular diseases—the leading cause of death among women—remain under-researched, and treatment outcomes are often less favorable for women. [31] [35] Other areas with gender data gaps include HIV, some cancers, and the side effects of medication. Due to underrepresentation in trials, women experience more side effects—up to twice as many as men—which has both health and financial consequences, as noted by the French Academy of Medicine in 2016. [39] [37] [31] [34] Drug efficacy may also differ by sex. [34] [39]
For centuries, medical focus on women has largely centered on reproductive health, with limited attention to other medical needs. [31] [44]
Sociologist Monique Membrado observed in 2006 that women have been underrepresented in the formulation of major public health issues—including HIV, addiction, cardiovascular disease, and cancer—and particularly absent in occupational health discussions. [44] [31]
In 2021, the French Senate's Delegation for Women’s Rights reported that women’s health was not considered a priority in rural areas, where medical desertification limits access to gynecological care. [45] This can result in delayed care and inadequate cancer screening. France has faced a shortage of medical gynecologists, with some departments lacking them entirely. [45] Medical gynecology, a discipline distinct from obstetrics and specific to France, saw a halt in specialist training from 1984 to 2003 as the country considered aligning with other European healthcare systems that do not maintain this distinction. [45]
On average, women in France receive pensions that are 41.7% lower than those received by men when considering only direct entitlement pensions. This gap is reduced to approximately 29% when accounting for child-related bonuses and survivor's pensions. [12]
Maternity leave daily allowances paid prior to 2012 are not included in the calculation of average annual income for pension purposes, which contributes to the pension gap. [46]
Between 1998 and 2015, the wealth gap between men and women in France increased from 9% to 16%. [10] This disparity is partially linked to the types of assets inherited. Women are more likely to receive liquid financial compensation, while men more frequently inherit appreciating structural assets such as real estate or businesses. [10] Additional contributing factors include greater economic vulnerability for women following separation or divorce. Approximately 30% of women, compared to 3% of men, experience a decline in financial stability post-separation. This is partly due to the conversion of alimony from regular annuities to lump-sum payments in the early 2000s. The average amount dropped from €93,000 to €25,000. [47] Child support calculations are typically based on the payer's financial capacity rather than the recipient’s needs. As women more often have custody, they are more likely to rely on social support to maintain living standards. Property ownership can also become difficult to retain. In situations involving domestic violence among homeowners in heterosexual couples, women who leave the shared residence may do so without negotiating their share, often in order to expedite the separation process. [47]
Women have access to all public and political offices under the same legal conditions as men. However, disparities remain in representation. In 2012, women made up 22% of the Senate and 27% of the National Assembly, despite constituting approximately 53% of the electorate. These figures exist in the context of the Law of June 6, 2000 , which mandates gender parity in political representation. [48]
Gender parity in the judiciary has progressed in recent years. In 2010, women represented 57% of magistrates across all roles. [49] By 2014, 72.6% of candidates admitted to the National School for the Judiciary (ENM) were women. The record was set in 2012 with 81.04%. [50]
The family court judiciary is composed of over 98% women, although cases concern individuals of all genders equally.
The Law of June 6, 2000 , requires gender parity on candidate lists for municipal, regional, senatorial, and European elections. In legislative elections, parties that do not adhere to parity are subject to financial penalties. [51]
In 2012, women represented 26.9% of the French National Assembly and 36.4% of the European Parliament. In 2017, 223 women were elected to the National Assembly, constituting 38.65% of its members. [52]
Globally, no national parliament has a female majority in both chambers. Rwanda and Bolivia have female majorities in their lower houses, though their upper houses have male majorities. [53] [54]
A 2017 INSEE study reported persistent gender disparities in physical and sports activities. Women were underrepresented in racket and team sports. In media coverage, women’s sports accounted for less than 20% of televised sports airtime. [55] [56]
Leadership roles in sports organizations remain limited for women. Despite the 2014 law for real gender equality , in 2019 only one Olympic sports federation and eleven non-Olympic federations were led by women. [57] [58]
Since 2013, the National Suicide Observatory has published data on suicide trends in France. [59] Sociological and demographic factors influence the incidence and outcome of suicide across genders. [60]
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August 9: Law establishing primary teacher training colleges: each department is required to have one, with a version for training male teachers and another for training female teachers—destined for communal schools. [63]
December 5: Decree organizing the General Inspectorate of Administrative Services of the Ministry of the Interior; among the planned measures is the creation of a post for a female general inspector—her salary is lower than that of her male counterparts; this general inspector is particularly in charge of inspecting girls' penal institutions and women's establishments. [63]
1880
1881
March 28, 1882: Law on mandatory primary education for both boys and girls between the ages of 6 and 13; school curricula differ only in that girls learn needlework and boys take military exercises. [63]
July 27, 1884: Law reinstating divorce. [63]
1885
October 30, 1886: Law on the organization of primary education: boys' schools have male teachers, while girls' schools, nursery schools, early childhood schools, and some mixed schools have female teachers. Women from a school director's family may assist in boys' schools. [63] Any commune with more than 500 inhabitants is required to have a separate school for girls unless mixed education is authorized by the departmental council. [63]
June 26, 1889: Law on nationality.
June 15, 1891: A decree allows "lady inspectors" to inspect penal institutions for women and girls. [63]
1892
1893
July 20, 1895: Law on savings banks. [63]
December 7, 1897: Law granting women the right to be witnesses in civil status acts and in official documents in general. [63]
1898
1900
March 31, 1902: Decree creating Agricultural Chambers in Algeria: in elections to these chambers, French women who retain their civil rights (i.e., single, divorced or legally separated, or widowed) may vote (but are not eligible to be elected). [63]
1903
December 15, 1904: Abolition of the ban on marrying the "accomplice in adultery." [63]
February 7, 1905: Decree implementing the international agreement aimed at effectively protecting against the criminal trade known as "white slavery" (international agreement from May 1904). [63] [65]
1907
1908
September 27, 1909: Law guaranteeing employment or job security for women after childbirth — employment contracts may be suspended for eight consecutive weeks. [63]
March 15, 1910: Law granting a special two-month leave, with full pay, to schoolteachers after childbirth — this corresponds to maternity leave. [63]
July 13, 1911: The two-month maternity leave granted to schoolteachers is extended to women employed by the postal, telegraph, and telephone services (PTT). [63]
1912
June 17, 1913: Law on postpartum rest for women. [63]
August 5, 1914: Law granting allowances to needy families during the war if the breadwinner is conscripted or recalled to military service [63] (France declared general mobilization on August 2 and entered World War I that same month).
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December 20, 1922: Law amending Articles 334 and 335 of the Penal Code to include punishment for attempted offenses related to the so-called "trafficking of women." [63]
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1928
July 3, 1929: Circular reorganizing hygiene clinics to ensure better sanitary oversight of prostitution. [63]
August 24, 1930: Decree enacting the Convention on the Nationality of Married Women (signed in Paris on September 12, 1928, between France and Belgium). [63]
December 9, 1931: Law granting female merchants eligibility to serve as judges in commercial courts. [63]
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Vichy Regime (July 1940-August 1944)
October 11, 1940: Law on women's work — aimed at combating unemployment; notably prohibits the hiring of married women in the administration. [63]
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Women increasingly demand equality with men in social, economic, and political rights. [64]
The 21st century was marked by the expansion of birth control. On June 15, 2000, the residency requirement for foreign women seeking an abortion was abolished, and on December 13th, a law was passed that allows emergency contraception ("morning-after pill") to be issued to minors without parental consent. [63] On July 4th, 2001, the legal period for abortion was extended from 10 to 12 weeks, [64] and then from 12 to 14 weeks on February 23rd, 2022. [68] On December 6th, 2006, a report from the High Council for Population and Family , recommended free and anonymous contraception for minors. [64] On March 25, 2013, a law was passed which includes full reimbursement of abortion and free access to medical contraception for minors over 15. [64] On August 25, 2020, free contraception was extended to girls under the age of 15. [64] On December 6, 2013, a law was enacted authorizing the trial of birthing centers. [63]
According to a study by the World Health Organization (WHO), between 15% and 71% of women have already been victims of domestic violence, whether physical, sexual, or psychological. In France, a partner kills his wife more than once every two days, [79] more often by deliberate homicide than by violence resulting in death. [80]
Measures implemented to combat violence against women include government intervention as well as that of the Ministry of Education. [81] Numerous awareness campaigns have been established in schools. The Ministry of the Interior enacted a law on March 23, 2006, to promote gender equality in education. Several associations also intervene and advocate for gender diversity. [82]
Ce travail [domestique] est majoritairement réalisé par les femmes (64 % des heures de travail domestique).[This [domestic] work is mostly done by women (64% of domestic work hours).]
La répartition des tâches est encore plus inégalitaire quand les conjoints actifs ont au moins deux enfants : la participation des hommes aux tâches domestiques diminue alors d'environ 10 %.[The division of labor is even more unequal when working couples have at least two children: men's participation in domestic tasks then decreases by about 10%.]
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