Gender inequality in France

Last updated

Gender inequalities in France affect several areas, including family life, education, employment, health, and political participation.

Contents

The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) monitors gender disparities through the Gender Inequality Index (GII), which evaluates reproductive health, empowerment, and labor market participation.

Young factory worker, painting by William Bouguereau, 1869. William-Adolphe Bouguereau (1825-1905) - Young Worker (1869).jpg
Young factory worker , painting by William Bouguereau, 1869.

Family sphere

Women in France perform approximately 64% of household labor. [1] Between 1966 and 1986, men's participation in domestic tasks increased slightly but has remained largely unchanged since. Task distribution becomes more unequal in households with two or more children, with men's involvement decreasing by about 10%. [2] A study by INED reports that 30% of men primarily manage household chores; however, this figure does not include the 15% of children involved in family court proceedings following separation, in which fathers may take on increased caregiving and domestic responsibilities. [3] According to a 2010 INSEE study, women spend an average of 3 hours and 26 minutes per day on domestic tasks, compared to 2 hours for men. [4] [5]

Child custody is contested in approximately 18% of divorces. [6] In about 90% of cases, custody is awarded to the mother, with few fathers requesting custody. [7] Custody is awarded to fathers in about 8% of cases. [8] Post-divorce, women experience a greater decline in standard of living compared to men. Following separation, approximately one-third of women and one-half of men enter new partnerships. Shared custody arrangements are becoming more common and now account for about 10% of divorce cases. [6]

Leisure time and unpaid work

In 2010, women in France spent an average of 3 hours and 46 minutes per day on leisure activities, compared to 4 hours and 24 minutes for men. This difference is primarily attributed to disparities in time spent on activities such as gaming, internet use, and sports. [9]

According to sociologist Sibylle Gollac  [ fr ] (2020), in households with children, men worked an average of 51 hours per week, with two-thirds of that time being paid work. Women worked an average of 54 hours per week, with two-thirds of that time consisting of unpaid work. [10]

Professional sphere

Women obtained the legal right to work without spousal authorization under the law of July 13, 1965  [ fr ], which came into effect on 1 February 1966. [11]

As of recent data (excluding Mayotte), 68.2% of women aged 15–64 were active in the labor market, compared to 75.8% of men in the same age group. [12]

According to a CFTC report, 49% of women reported that having a child significantly affected their employment situation, compared to 14% of men. These effects may include job changes, reductions in working hours, or parental leave. [13]

Unemployment

In 2007, women represented 45% of the active workforce (approximately 11.2 million) and had an unemployment rate of 9.1%, compared to 7.8% for men. By 2012, unemployment rose to 10% for women and 9.7% for men. Since 2014, the male unemployment rate has exceeded that of women, according to INSEE data. [14]

Employment

Approximately half of all women are employed. Women represent 76% of employees but only 18% of manual workers. In the private sector, two-thirds of executive roles are held by men. Fewer than 20% of business leaders are women. [15]

Around 11% of women hold temporary positions—such as fixed-term contracts, or subsidized jobs—compared to 8% of all employees. [16]

Parenthood is reported as a factor that may influence employment trajectories. Some studies indicate that pregnancy and maternity leave can affect career progression. [17]

Salary

In 2021, the average annual salary in the private sector was €18,630 for women and €24,640 for men, reflecting a 24.4% gap. [12] This difference is partially attributed to variations in working hours, job types, and the prevalence of part-time work, which accounted for approximately 40% of the wage gap in 2017. [18] When adjusted to full-time equivalents, the average wage gap was 15.5% in 2021, down from 17.5% in 2016. [12]

The wage gap tends to increase with age: it was 4.6% at age 25 and rose to 27.5% among those over 60. Differences in working time decrease with age, from 20% under age 25 to 10% between ages 25 and 60. [19]

For workers, women earned 14.3% less than men for equivalent hours and worked 23.3% fewer hours. Among employees, women earned 4.7% less for similar hours and had nearly equal working time. The pay gap for equal hours was 16.1% among executives and 12.2% among intermediate professions, with women in these groups also working fewer hours (4.7% and 10.9%, respectively). [19]

For equivalent positions and working hours, the wage gap was 4.3%, though occupational segregation—such as differences in sector and employer—affects this figure. [19]

In the public sector, the overall gender wage gap was 14%. Among executives, the gap was 23%; among workers, 17%; and among employees, 7%. [4]

For full-time salaried positions, the gender wage gap declined from 29.4% in 1976 to 16.3% in 2017. The gap narrowed steadily until 1980, remained largely stable until 2000, and began to decrease again thereafter, though part-time employment among women influenced this trend. [18]

Part-time work

Approximately 30% of women in France work part-time, compared to 5% of men. Of the 4.1 million part-time workers, 83% are women. [20] The prevalence of part-time work among women is closely associated with the presence of young children in the household. Among part-time workers, 28% of women and 42% of men report working part-time involuntarily, indicating a preference for more working hours. [21]

Skilled jobs and hierarchical positions

Women are more frequently employed in lower-skilled positions. [12] In 2018, 25.9% of employed women held unskilled employee or laborer roles, compared to 15% of men. Conversely, 15.7% of employed women held executive positions, compared to 20.8% of men. [12]

Occupational segregation remains a key characteristic of the labor market. Service-related occupations, as well as teaching and cleaning jobs, are predominantly held by women. Highly skilled positions in the tertiary sector are more gender-balanced. [22]

Studies have found that women face more obstacles than men in accessing promotions and salary increases, a phenomenon referred to as the "glass ceiling." [23]

The Copé-Zimmermann Law of 27 January 2011  [ fr ] requires companies with more than 500 employees or annual revenues above €50 million to appoint at least 40% women to their boards of directors and supervisory boards. This requirement was later extended to include mutual insurance organizations under the insurance code. [24] As a result, women comprised 26% of board members in the 120 largest publicly traded companies in 2013, increasing to 43.6% by 2019. [25]

The Rixain Law, adopted in 2021, aims to increase women's representation in economic and professional leadership. It includes provisions for: [24]

  • An index to measure gender equality in higher education programs; [24]
  • Quotas for leadership positions in large companies: 30% of executive managers and governing body members must be women by 2027, rising to 40% by 2030. [24]

Workplace accidents

Women are underrepresented in sectors associated with higher physical risks, which contributes to lower reported rates of workplace accidents. Fewer than 26% of non-fatal work accidents involve women. Similarly, women account for 25% of workplace accidents resulting in permanent disability. Fatal work accidents are substantially more common among men, with 25 times more men than women dying on the job. [26]

Occupational diseases

Men are more likely to be employed in positions with higher exposure to occupational health hazards. They account for two-thirds of occupational diseases leading to permanent disability. Deaths from occupational disease are over 80 times more common among men than women. [27]

Night work

Fewer than 25% of night shift positions are held by women. [28]

Indirect effects of labor division

Gender-based differences in job type, role, sector, and working hours are among the primary contributors to the wage gap. An estimated 75% of the overall wage gap can be attributed to these structural factors, with working hours being the most influential. [29] Even when controlling for working time, educational background, professional experience, qualifications, region, sector, and job position, men’s salaries remain approximately 10% higher than those of women. [30]

Health

General overview

Studies on gender and health remain limited. In the early 21st century, life expectancy in France was higher for women than men—85.3 years compared to 79.4 in 2018. [31] However, healthy life expectancy was similar, [32] with women at 64.5 years and men at 63.4 in 2018. Since 2004, healthy life expectancy has increased for men but remained stable for women. [31]

Historically, in Western societies, male and female health have been conceptualized differently. From Antiquity onward, the male body was viewed as the standard, while the female body was seen as a variation and more prone to illness. [31] Diagnoses and treatment have differed depending on the patient’s sex. [31] In 17th- and 18th-century Europe, women were more often diagnosed with nervous disorders. During this period, medical and state interests in reproduction led to increased study of the female body, particularly as a reproductive body, with a focus on the uterus. New professions, such as midwifery and obstetrics, developed in this context. [31] From the late 18th century onward, sexuality began to be medicalized. Behavioral norms were reframed in medical rather than religious terms, with differences in how male and female behavior were judged. For a prolonged period, women’s bodies and intellects were considered inferior in medical discourse, contributing to gendered hierarchies. [31] Women's health was often regarded as pathological or dysfunctional by default. [33]

Scientific research has also been shaped by gender bias. According to physician Robert Barouki (2023), research on women's health has historically been limited by social bias and an emphasis on male physiology. [33] French geneticist Claudine Junien noted in 2016 that France lagged behind other countries in integrating sex-based biological differences in research and treatment, though attention to gender parity in healthcare was increasing. [34]

Elements regarding the consideration of gender in medicine

Efforts to incorporate gender into medical research began in the late 1980s, primarily in the United States. [31] In 1995, the World Health Organization (WHO) established the Department of Gender and Women’s Health. [31] Several European countries followed in the early 2000s by creating research bodies focused on gender in medicine. [31] In France, the "Gender and Health Research" group was created at Inserm in 2013. [31] Public institutions such as French National Public Health Agency and the Haute Autorité de Santé  [ fr ] (HAS) have since addressed gender disparities in research and treatment. [31]

Impacts of gender stereotypes in health and medicine

Gender stereotypes influence both diagnosis and treatment practices for men and women. [35] Ancient theories, such as those of Hippocrates, perpetuated hierarchical models in which the female body was considered a deviation from the male norm—a view that persisted into the 19th century. [31] [36]

Some diseases are underdiagnosed in one sex due to stereotypical associations. [31] [37] For instance, women are less frequently and less accurately diagnosed with myocardial infarction, [31] [38] despite an increase in incidence among women between 2008 and 2013 (+20%). [31] Symptoms in women may differ from those in men and are less well-known or recognized. [39] [40] In 2015, cardiovascular disease accounted for 51% of deaths in women in Europe. [38] Similar disparities exist in other conditions. Women with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are diagnosed later than men, even though prevalence is now similar. [39] Women with autism spectrum disorders are often diagnosed late, which has been linked to significantly reduced life expectancy compared to neurotypical women. [40] Strokes, more common among women, also have more severe outcomes in women but were less studied in female patients as of 2017. [41] Conversely, some conditions such as osteoporosis are underdiagnosed in men, as the disease is often seen as predominantly affecting women. Despite this, men represent one-third of hip fractures and have a higher risk of complications. [35]

Historically, men’s pain has been treated as abnormal and requiring medical intervention, while women’s pain, especially related to menstruation and childbirth, was considered normal and often left untreated. [42] The perception of menstruation-related pain as natural—sometimes reinforced by religious narratives—contributed to this neglect. [43] [31] Pain relief in childbirth gradually advanced, with chemical anesthesia introduced in the 19th century, and techniques such as pain-free childbirth in 1950s France. Epidural anesthesia became common from the 1980s onward. [31] [43] Menstrual pain and conditions like endometriosis (affecting around 10% of women) have only been widely recognized by the medical profession since the late 2010s. [31] [37] Endometriosis was officially recognized as a medical condition in France in 1990. A national awareness plan was launched in 2019, and the disease was classified as a long-term illness in 2022. [40]

Some studies suggest that women may delay seeking care, often prioritizing family responsibilities and underestimating their symptoms. [40]

Impacts of the underrepresentation of women in certain research and clinical trials

Historically, women were often excluded from clinical trials for reasons such as hormonal variability or concerns about pregnancy-related risks. This exclusion has limited understanding of how certain diseases and treatments affect women. [31] For example, women’s cardiovascular diseases—the leading cause of death among women—remain under-researched, and treatment outcomes are often less favorable for women. [31] [35] Other areas with gender data gaps include HIV, some cancers, and the side effects of medication. Due to underrepresentation in trials, women experience more side effects—up to twice as many as men—which has both health and financial consequences, as noted by the French Academy of Medicine in 2016. [39] [37] [31] [34] Drug efficacy may also differ by sex. [34] [39]

The long-standing exclusive focus on women's reproductive health

For centuries, medical focus on women has largely centered on reproductive health, with limited attention to other medical needs. [31] [44]

Inclusion of people of all genders in defining public health policies

Sociologist Monique Membrado observed in 2006 that women have been underrepresented in the formulation of major public health issues—including HIV, addiction, cardiovascular disease, and cancer—and particularly absent in occupational health discussions. [44] [31]

Access to healthcare

In 2021, the French Senate's Delegation for Women’s Rights reported that women’s health was not considered a priority in rural areas, where medical desertification limits access to gynecological care. [45] This can result in delayed care and inadequate cancer screening. France has faced a shortage of medical gynecologists, with some departments lacking them entirely. [45] Medical gynecology, a discipline distinct from obstetrics and specific to France, saw a halt in specialist training from 1984 to 2003 as the country considered aligning with other European healthcare systems that do not maintain this distinction. [45]

Retirement

On average, women in France receive pensions that are 41.7% lower than those received by men when considering only direct entitlement pensions. This gap is reduced to approximately 29% when accounting for child-related bonuses and survivor's pensions. [12]

Maternity leave daily allowances paid prior to 2012 are not included in the calculation of average annual income for pension purposes, which contributes to the pension gap. [46]

Wealth inequalities

Between 1998 and 2015, the wealth gap between men and women in France increased from 9% to 16%. [10] This disparity is partially linked to the types of assets inherited. Women are more likely to receive liquid financial compensation, while men more frequently inherit appreciating structural assets such as real estate or businesses. [10] Additional contributing factors include greater economic vulnerability for women following separation or divorce. Approximately 30% of women, compared to 3% of men, experience a decline in financial stability post-separation. This is partly due to the conversion of alimony from regular annuities to lump-sum payments in the early 2000s. The average amount dropped from €93,000 to €25,000. [47] Child support calculations are typically based on the payer's financial capacity rather than the recipient’s needs. As women more often have custody, they are more likely to rely on social support to maintain living standards. Property ownership can also become difficult to retain. In situations involving domestic violence among homeowners in heterosexual couples, women who leave the shared residence may do so without negotiating their share, often in order to expedite the separation process. [47]

Representation in institutions

General overview

Women have access to all public and political offices under the same legal conditions as men. However, disparities remain in representation. In 2012, women made up 22% of the Senate and 27% of the National Assembly, despite constituting approximately 53% of the electorate. These figures exist in the context of the Law of June 6, 2000  [ fr ], which mandates gender parity in political representation. [48]

The case of the Judiciary

Gender parity in the judiciary has progressed in recent years. In 2010, women represented 57% of magistrates across all roles. [49] By 2014, 72.6% of candidates admitted to the National School for the Judiciary (ENM) were women. The record was set in 2012 with 81.04%. [50]

The family court judiciary is composed of over 98% women, although cases concern individuals of all genders equally.

Political office

The Law of June 6, 2000  [ fr ], requires gender parity on candidate lists for municipal, regional, senatorial, and European elections. In legislative elections, parties that do not adhere to parity are subject to financial penalties. [51]

In 2012, women represented 26.9% of the French National Assembly and 36.4% of the European Parliament. In 2017, 223 women were elected to the National Assembly, constituting 38.65% of its members. [52]

Globally, no national parliament has a female majority in both chambers. Rwanda and Bolivia have female majorities in their lower houses, though their upper houses have male majorities. [53] [54]

Sports

A 2017 INSEE study reported persistent gender disparities in physical and sports activities. Women were underrepresented in racket and team sports. In media coverage, women’s sports accounted for less than 20% of televised sports airtime. [55] [56]

Leadership roles in sports organizations remain limited for women. Despite the 2014 law for real gender equality  [ fr ], in 2019 only one Olympic sports federation and eleven non-Olympic federations were led by women. [57] [58]

Suicide

Since 2013, the National Suicide Observatory has published data on suicide trends in France. [59] Sociological and demographic factors influence the incidence and outcome of suicide across genders. [60]

Historical overview

Revolutionary period (French Revolution and subsequent years)

1789

1790

Preamble to the Declaration of the Rights of Women and the Female Citizen, 1791. DDFC.jpg
Preamble to the Declaration of the Rights of Women and the Female Citizen, 1791.

1791

1792

1793

1794

1795

1798

1799

1800

1801

1802

1803

French Civil Code, 1804, first page of the original edition. Code Civil 1804.png
French Civil Code, 1804, first page of the original edition.

1804

First Empire

Restoration

1816

1820

1821

1824

1825

1829

1830

July Monarchy

1831

1832

1833

1836

1837

1838

1839

1842

1845

1846

Provisional government decree on the definitive abolition of slavery in the colonies, dated April 27, 1848. National Archives BB-30-1125-A-296. Decret d'abolition de l'esclavage-Archives nationales-BB-30-1125-A-296.jpg
Provisional government decree on the definitive abolition of slavery in the colonies, dated April 27, 1848. National Archives BB-30-1125-A-296.

1848

Second Republic

1848

1850

Second Empire

1867

Third Republic (1870–1940)

1875

1879

August 9: Law establishing primary teacher training colleges: each department is required to have one, with a version for training male teachers and another for training female teachers—destined for communal schools. [63]

December 5: Decree organizing the General Inspectorate of Administrative Services of the Ministry of the Interior; among the planned measures is the creation of a post for a female general inspector—her salary is lower than that of her male counterparts; this general inspector is particularly in charge of inspecting girls' penal institutions and women's establishments. [63]

1880

1881

March 28, 1882: Law on mandatory primary education for both boys and girls between the ages of 6 and 13; school curricula differ only in that girls learn needlework and boys take military exercises. [63]

July 27, 1884: Law reinstating divorce. [63]

1885

October 30, 1886: Law on the organization of primary education: boys' schools have male teachers, while girls' schools, nursery schools, early childhood schools, and some mixed schools have female teachers. Women from a school director's family may assist in boys' schools. [63] Any commune with more than 500 inhabitants is required to have a separate school for girls unless mixed education is authorized by the departmental council. [63]

June 26, 1889: Law on nationality.

June 15, 1891: A decree allows "lady inspectors" to inspect penal institutions for women and girls. [63]

1892

1893

July 20, 1895: Law on savings banks. [63]

December 7, 1897: Law granting women the right to be witnesses in civil status acts and in official documents in general. [63]

1898

1900

March 31, 1902: Decree creating Agricultural Chambers in Algeria: in elections to these chambers, French women who retain their civil rights (i.e., single, divorced or legally separated, or widowed) may vote (but are not eligible to be elected). [63]

1903

December 15, 1904: Abolition of the ban on marrying the "accomplice in adultery." [63]

February 7, 1905: Decree implementing the international agreement aimed at effectively protecting against the criminal trade known as "white slavery" (international agreement from May 1904). [63] [65]

1907

1908

September 27, 1909: Law guaranteeing employment or job security for women after childbirth — employment contracts may be suspended for eight consecutive weeks. [63]

March 15, 1910: Law granting a special two-month leave, with full pay, to schoolteachers after childbirth — this corresponds to maternity leave. [63]

July 13, 1911: The two-month maternity leave granted to schoolteachers is extended to women employed by the postal, telegraph, and telephone services (PTT). [63]

1912

June 17, 1913: Law on postpartum rest for women. [63]

August 5, 1914: Law granting allowances to needy families during the war if the breadwinner is conscripted or recalled to military service [63] (France declared general mobilization on August 2 and entered World War I that same month).

1916

1917

1919

1920

1921

December 20, 1922: Law amending Articles 334 and 335 of the Penal Code to include punishment for attempted offenses related to the so-called "trafficking of women." [63]

1923

1924

1925

1926

1927

1928

July 3, 1929: Circular reorganizing hygiene clinics to ensure better sanitary oversight of prostitution. [63]

August 24, 1930: Decree enacting the Convention on the Nationality of Married Women (signed in Paris on September 12, 1928, between France and Belgium). [63]

December 9, 1931: Law granting female merchants eligibility to serve as judges in commercial courts. [63]

1932

1935

1936

1937

1938

1939

Vichy Regime (July 1940-August 1944)

October 11, 1940: Law on women's work — aimed at combating unemployment; notably prohibits the hiring of married women in the administration. [63]

1941

1942

1943

1944

Second Half of the 20th Century

Women increasingly demand equality with men in social, economic, and political rights. [64]

Provisional Government of the French Republic

Ordinance establishing the organization of public authorities in France after the Liberation [fr], April 21, 1944. National Archives A//1902. This ordinance also granted women the right to vote. Ordonnance- vote-des-femmes-Archives nationales-A-1902.jpg
Ordinance establishing the organization of public authorities in France after the Liberation  [ fr ], April 21, 1944. National Archives A//1902. This ordinance also granted women the right to vote.

Fourth Republic

Fifth Republic

21st century

The 21st century was marked by the expansion of birth control. On June 15, 2000, the residency requirement for foreign women seeking an abortion was abolished, and on December 13th, a law was passed that allows emergency contraception ("morning-after pill") to be issued to minors without parental consent. [63] On July 4th, 2001, the legal period for abortion was extended from 10 to 12 weeks, [64] and then from 12 to 14 weeks on February 23rd, 2022. [68] On December 6th, 2006, a report from the High Council for Population and Family  [ fr ], recommended free and anonymous contraception for minors. [64] On March 25, 2013, a law was passed which includes full reimbursement of abortion and free access to medical contraception for minors over 15. [64] On August 25, 2020, free contraception was extended to girls under the age of 15. [64] On December 6, 2013, a law was enacted authorizing the trial of birthing centers. [63]

Timeline of the struggle for professional equality in France

Violence against women

According to a study by the World Health Organization (WHO), between 15% and 71% of women have already been victims of domestic violence, whether physical, sexual, or psychological. In France, a partner kills his wife more than once every two days, [79] more often by deliberate homicide than by violence resulting in death. [80]

Measures implemented to combat violence against women include government intervention as well as that of the Ministry of Education. [81] Numerous awareness campaigns have been established in schools. The Ministry of the Interior enacted a law on March 23, 2006, to promote gender equality in education. Several associations also intervene and advocate for gender diversity. [82]

See also

References

  1. Roy, Delphine (2012). "Le travail domestique : 60 milliards d'heures en 2010" [Domestic work: 60 billion hours in 2010]. Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques (in French). Retrieved May 8, 2025. Ce travail [domestique] est majoritairement réalisé par les femmes (64 % des heures de travail domestique).[This [domestic] work is mostly done by women (64% of domestic work hours).]
  2. "Le travail domestique : 60 milliards d'heures en 2010 aL'évolution des temps sociaux au travers des enquêtes Emploi du temps" [Social change through surveys Time use](PDF). Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques (in French). 2002. p. 8. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 12, 2021. Retrieved May 8, 2025. La répartition des tâches est encore plus inégalitaire quand les conjoints actifs ont au moins deux enfants : la participation des hommes aux tâches domestiques diminue alors d'environ 10 %.[The division of labor is even more unequal when working couples have at least two children: men's participation in domestic tasks then decreases by about 10%.]
  3. Dominguez-Folgueras, Marta (2021). "Difficult Times: The Division of Domestic Work under Lockdown in France". Social Sciences. 10 (6): 219. doi: 10.3390/socsci10060219 .
  4. 1 2 "Femmes et hommes - Regards sur la parité" [Women and men - Perspectives on gender equality]. Insee (in French). March 8, 2012. Retrieved May 14, 2025.
  5. Pailhé, A; Recotillet, I; Solaz, A (2022). Housework and Parenting during the Lockdowns in France. INSEE. pp. 3–25. Retrieved May 16, 2025.
  6. 1 2 Oujia, Sonia; Sanzeri, Olivier (May 23, 2024). "Après une séparation, les femmes subissent une perte financière plus élevée que les hommes" [After a separation, women suffer greater financial loss than men.]. Insee (in French). Retrieved May 16, 2025.
  7. "Les partis pris : Des heurts en fin de manifestation à Paris, "Nucléaire, 30 ans de divagation" et "la diplomatie du sarcophage"" [The biases: Clashes at the end of a demonstration in Paris, "Nuclear power, 30 years of delusion" and "the diplomacy of the sarcophagus"]. TF1info (in French). April 6, 2023. Retrieved May 16, 2025.
  8. "Garde des enfants : des papas lésés ?" [Child custody: are fathers being treated unfairly?]. Inégalités (in French). Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  9. "Depuis 11 ans, moins de tâches ménagères, plus d'Internet - Insee Première - 1377" [For 11 years, fewer household chores, more Internet - Insee Première - 1377]. www.insee.fr (in French). Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  10. 1 2 3 Duneau, Clémence; Bretonnier, Marceau (July 12, 2020). "Pourquoi les hommes sont plus riches que les femmes en France. Et de plus en plus" [Why men are richer than women in France. And increasingly so.]. Le Monde (in French). Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  11. de Boysson, Benoît (July 13, 1965). "Promulgation de la loi portant réforme des régimes matrimoniaux" [Enactment of the law reforming matrimonial property regimes]. francearchives.fr (in French). Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Femmes et hommes − Tableaux de l'économie française" [Women and men − Tables on the French economy]. Insee (in French). February 27, 2020. Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  13. "Vie personnelle vie professionnelle : Conciliation, équilibre ou articulation ?" [Personal life and professional life: Reconciliation, balance, or coordination?](PDF) (in French). 2022. Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  14. "Activité, emploi et chômage en 2016" [Activity, employment, and unemployment in 2016]. Insee (in French). June 22, 2017. Retrieved May 9, 2025.
  15. "Dans le monde du travail, les inégalités femmes-hommes ont la vie dure" [In the world of work, gender inequality persists]. OXFAM France (in French). Retrieved May 9, 2025.
  16. Lurol, Martine (2001). "Le travail des femmes en France: trente ans d'évolution des problématiques en sociologie (1970–2000)" [Women's work in France: thirty years of changing issues in sociology (1970–2000)] (in French). Retrieved May 9, 2025.
  17. "Le retour de congé maternité des femmes cadres" [Women executives returning from maternity leave]. APEC (in French). February 8, 2024. Archived from the original on February 10, 2024. Retrieved May 9, 2025.
  18. 1 2 Georges-Kot, Simon (June 18, 2020). "Écarts de rémunération femmes-hommes : surtout l'effet du temps de travail et de l'emploi occupé - Insee Première - 1803" [Gender pay gap: mainly due to working hours and occupation - INSEE Première - 1803]. Insee (in French). Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  19. 1 2 3 Godet, Fanny (March 7, 2023). "Dans le secteur privé, l'écart de salaire entre femmes et hommes est d'environ 4 % à temps de travail et à postes comparables en 2021" [In the private sector, the gender pay gap is around 4% for comparable jobs and working hours in 2021.]. Insee (in French). Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  20. Bourreau-Dubois, Cécile; Guillot, Olivier; Jankeliowitch-Laval, Éliane (2001). "Le travail à temps partiel féminin et ses déterminants" [Female part-time work and its determinants]. Économie et Statistique (in French). 349: 41–61. doi:10.3406/estat.2001.7413.
  21. "Temps partiel et inégalités hommes/femmes : quels liens ?" [Part-time work and gender inequality: what are the links?]. youmatter (in French). November 17, 2023. Retrieved May 9, 2025.
  22. "Tableaux de l'Économie Française" [French Economy Tables]. Insee (in French). February 20, 2015. Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  23. Maruani, Margaret (March 11, 2003). "Travail et emploi des femmes" [Women's work and employment] (in French). Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  24. 1 2 3 4 "Loi du 24 décembre 2021 visant à accélérer l'égalité économique et professionnelle" [Law of December 24, 2021, aimed at accelerating economic and professional equality]. République Francaise (in French). December 27, 2021. Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  25. Caillaud, Corinne (2022). "Premier pas vers la féminisation des instances dirigeantes" [First step towards gender equality in leadership positions]. Le Figaro (in French). p. 26. Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  26. "ENSEMBLE DES NEUF GRANDES BRANCHES D'ACTIVITES" [ALL NINE MAJOR BUSINESS SEGMENTS](PDF). National Fund for Health Insurance (in French). Archived from the original (PDF) on October 4, 2006.
  27. "STATISTIQUES TECHNOLOGIQUES DES MALADIES PROFESSIONNELLES (ANNEE 2005)" [TECHNOLOGICAL STATISTICS ON OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES (YEAR 2005)](PDF). National Fund for Health Insurance (in French). Archived from the original (PDF) on July 9, 2007.
  28. "TRAVAIL DE NUIT ET DU SOIR DEPUIS DIX ANS : une progression plus rapide pour les femmes que pour les hommes" [NIGHT AND EVENING WORK OVER THE PAST TEN YEARS: faster growth for women than for men](PDF). National Fund for Health Insurance (in French). 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 27, 2007.
  29. Meurs, Dominique; Ponthieux, Sophie. "L'écart des salaires entre les femmes et les hommes peut-il encore baisser ?" [Can the gender pay gap be reduced further?](PDF). Insee (in French). Archived from the original (PDF) on May 3, 2007.
  30. Gerardin, Mathilde. "Écart de salaire entre femmes et hommes en 2023" [Gender pay gap in 2023]. Insee (in French). Retrieved May 9, 2025.
  31. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Moghaddam, Fiona (March 8, 2020). "Santé des femmes : une très lente prise en compte depuis l'Antiquité" [Women's health: a very slow process of recognition since ancient times]. France Culture (in French). Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  32. Polton, Dominique (2016). "Égalité femmes - hommes en matière de santé et de recours aux soins" [Gender equality in health and access to healthcare]. Regards (in French). 50 (2): 35–45. doi:10.3917/regar.050.0035.
  33. 1 2 "Santé environnementale : l'impact des polluants sur la santé des femmes" [Environmental health: the impact of pollutants on women's health]. Radio France (in French). June 6, 2023. Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  34. 1 2 3 Court, Marielle; Thibert, Cécile (September 2, 2016). "Médecine : les différences hommes-femmes négligées" [Environmental health: the impact of pollutants on women's health]. Le Figaro Santé (in French). Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  35. 1 2 3 "Les stéréotypes de genre nuisent à la santé des femmes... et des hommes" [Medicine: overlooked gender differences]. Franceinfo (in French). December 20, 2017. Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  36. "Catherine Vidal". France Culture (in French). Archived from the original on September 7, 2015.
  37. 1 2 3 Gardette, Hervé (September 27, 2017). "Faut-il une autre médecine pour les femmes ?" [Gender stereotypes harm women's health... and men's too]. France Culture (in French). Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  38. 1 2 Léna, Pauline (September 11, 2015). "Surveiller et traiter différemment le cœur des femmes" [Monitoring and treating women's hearts differently]. Le Figaro Santé (in French). Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  39. 1 2 3 4 Vaisman, Sylvia. "Pourquoi les femmes sont-elles moins bien soignées que les hommes ?" [Why do women receive poorer healthcare than men?]. Marie Claire (in French). Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  40. 1 2 3 4 "Santé des femmes : et si on s'en occupait sérieusement ?" [Women's health: what if we took it seriously?]. France Inter (in French). June 5, 2023. Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  41. Thibert, Cécile (September 7, 2017). "Pourquoi hommes et femmes ne sont pas égaux face aux AVC" [Why men and women are not equal when it comes to strokes]. Le Figaro Santé (in French). Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  42. De Wilde, Ariane (August 7, 2024). "C'est scientifiquement prouvé, les femmes sont moins susceptibles d'être traitées pour la douleur que les hommes" [It is scientifically proven that women are less likely to be treated for pain than men.]. Marie Claire (in French). Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  43. 1 2 "Comment la naissance est devenue un acte médicalisé" [How childbirth became a medical procedure]. Le Monde (in French). August 30, 2017. Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  44. 1 2 Membrado, Monique (2006). "Les femmes dans le champ de la santé : de l'oubli à la particularisation" [Women in healthcare: from neglect to specialization]. Nouvelles Questions Féministes (in French). 25 (2): 16–31. doi:10.3917/nqf.252.0016. ISSN   0248-4951.
  45. 1 2 3 Ostermann, Ophélie (October 21, 2021). "Pourquoi y a-t-il une pénurie de gynécologues en France ?" [Why is there a shortage of gynecologists in France?]. Madame Figaro (in French). Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  46. Le Gall, Anne Marie (October 12, 2012). "Congés maternité: comptent-ils pour la retraite?" [Maternity leave: does it count toward retirement?]. Notre Temps (in French). Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  47. 1 2 Mouzon, C (2020). "Les inégalités de patrimoine au prisme du genre" [Wealth inequality through a gender lens]. L'Économie politique (in French). 88 (4): 8–21. doi:10.3917/leco.088.0008 (inactive 1 July 2025).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link)
  48. Pierre-Brossolette, Pierre (2022). Parité politique : la nécessité d'un acte II[Political parity: the need for a second act] (in French).
  49. Koch, François (March 22, 2010). "Les femmes magistrats font la loi" [Women magistrates lay down the law]. L'Express (in French). Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  50. "La nouvelle promotion de l'Ecole Nationale de la Magistrature : toujours autant de femmes" [The new class at the National School for the Judiciary: still as many women as ever]. Franceinfo (in French). February 3, 2014. Archived from the original on November 11, 2020.
  51. "Décret no 99-627 du 22 juillet 1999 modifiant le décret du 19 juillet 1989 autorisant le Commissariat à l'énergie atomique à créer une installation nucléaire de base, dénommée Atalante, sur le centre d'études nucléaires de la vallée du Rhône, au lieudit de Marcoule, commune de Chusclan (Gard)" [Decree No. 99-627 of July 22, 1999, amending the decree of July 19, 1989, authorizing the Atomic Energy Commission to create a basic nuclear facility, known as Atalante, at the Rhône Valley Nuclear Research Center, located in Marcoule, in the municipality of Chusclan (Gard).]. Legifrance (in French). Retrieved May 14, 2025.
  52. "Contraintes renforcées et volontarisme affiché : une progression sans précédent des femmes à l'Assemblée" [Stronger constraints and a clear commitment: unprecedented progress for women in the Assembly]. HCE (in French). June 19, 2017. Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  53. "Women in national parliaments". Inter-Parliamentary Union . Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  54. "Proportion of seats held by women in national parliaments (%)". World Bank . Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  55. Pinna, Monica (November 20, 2020). "Le sport, terrain glissant pour l'égalité homme-femme" [Sports, a tricky area for gender equality]. euronews (in French). Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  56. Gleizes, François. "Pratiques physiques ou sportives des femmes et des hommes : des rapprochements mais aussi des différences qui persistent" [Physical and sporting activities among women and men: similarities but also persistent differences]. Insee (in French). Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  57. "A l'origine des inégalités sportives – CDOS 86" [The roots of inequality in sport – CDOS 86]. cdos86.fr (in French). April 2, 2019. Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  58. Damgé, Mathilde; Maad, Assma (February 17, 2020). "Représentation des femmes dans le sport : ces fédérations olympiques qui ne respectent pas la loi" [Women in sport: Olympic federations that are not complying with the law]. Le Monde (in French). Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  59. "Observatoire national du suicide : Création de l'Observatoire national du suicide" [National Suicide Observatory: Creation of the National Suicide Observatory]. Research, Studies, Evaluation and Statistics Department (in French). September 7, 2020. Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  60. "Pourquoi les hommes se suicident trois fois plus que les femmes ?" [Why do men commit suicide three times more than women?]. Libération (in French). February 16, 2018. Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  61. 1 2 3 Observatoire national du suicide (2022). Suicide - Mesurer l'impact de la crise sanitaire liée au Covid-19. Effets contrastés au sein de la population et mal-être chez les jeunes [Suicide - Measuring the impact of the COVID-19 health crisis. Mixed effects within the population and distress among young people](PDF) (in French) (5th ed.). ISBN   978-2-11-162755-0 . Retrieved May 9, 2025.
  62. 1 2 3 Observatoire National su Suicide (2020). SUICIDE: Quels liens avec le travail et le chômage ? Penser la prévention et les systèmes d'information [SUICIDE: What links are there with work and unemployment? Thinking about prevention and information systems](PDF) (in French). Retrieved May 8, 2025.
  63. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380 381 382 383 384 385 386 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 394 395 396 397 398 399 400 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 416 417 418 419 420 421 422 423 424 425 426 427 428 429 430 431 432 433 434 435 436 437 438 439 440 441 442 443 444 445 446 447 448 449 450 451 Duffuler-Vialle, Hélène (October 19, 2020). "Chronologie des droits des femmes en France de la Révolution française à nos jours" [Timeline of women's rights in France from the French Revolution to the present day]. Crimino Corpus (in French). Archived from the original on April 17, 2021.
  64. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 La Rédaction du site (February 15, 2021). "L'évolution des droits des femmes : chronologie" [The evolution of women's rights: a timeline]. Direction de l'information légale et administrative (DILA) de la France (in French). Archived from the original on March 5, 2021.
  65. République française (1905). "Bulletin des lois de la République française" [Bulletin of the Laws of the French Republic]. Gallica (in French). Retrieved May 9, 2025.
  66. French National Assembly. "La décision du Général de Gaulle : et l'ordonnance du 21 avril 1944" [General de Gaulle's decision: and the order of April 21, 1944]. www2.assemblee-nationale.fr (in French). Archived from the original on April 12, 2021.
  67. Pruvost, G (2007). "Anatomie politique, professionnelle et médiatique des femmes dans la police" [Political, professional, and media anatomy of women in the police force]. Cahiers du Genre (in French). 42 (1): 43–60. doi:10.3917/cdge.042.0043.
  68. "Avortement : le délai légal passe de 12 à 14 semaines en France" [Abortion: legal time limit extended from 12 to 14 weeks in France]. France 24 (in French). February 23, 2022. Retrieved May 9, 2025.
  69. "Lettre du président de la République au Premier ministre en date du 11 juillet 2008 relative aux ordres nationaux" [Letter from the President of the Republic to the Prime Minister dated July 11, 2008, regarding national orders]. Legifrance (in French). Retrieved May 9, 2025.
  70. de Villeblanche, Sixtine (December 17, 2021). "Égalité économique et professionnelle : la proposition de loi Rixain définitivement adoptée par le Parlement" [Economic and professional equality: the Rixain bill definitively adopted by Parliament]. AEF info (in French). Retrieved May 9, 2025.
  71. Rocco, Anne-Marie (December 16, 2021). "Egalité: La loi Rixain sur la féminisation des instances dirigeantes adoptée" [Equality: The Rixain law on gender equality in leadership positions adopted]. Challenges (in French). Retrieved May 9, 2025.
  72. Basini, Bruna (March 5, 2022). "Malgré des progrès, les femmes restent minoritaires dans les instances de direction des entreprises cotées" [Despite progress, women remain a minority in the management bodies of listed companies]. Le Journal du Dimanche (in French). Retrieved May 9, 2025.
  73. Aubé, Claire (March 8, 2022). "Parité en entreprises : une progression à petit pas" [Gender equality in companies: progress in small steps]. Le Parisien (in French). Retrieved May 9, 2025.
  74. Rocco, Anne-Marie Rocco (March 16, 2022). "Elisabeth Moreno: "La France est un pays phare et moteur en matière d'égalité professionnelle"" [Elisabeth Moreno: "France is a leading country and a driving force in terms of professional equality."]. Challenges (in French). Retrieved May 9, 2025.
  75. Rodier, Anne (March 16, 2022). "Créer les conditions favorables à l'accession des femmes aux plus hautes responsabilités" [Create conditions conducive to women's access to the highest positions of responsibility]. Le Monde (in French). Retrieved May 9, 2025.
  76. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Malnory, Camille (July 13, 2015). "Quand les femmes ne pouvaient pas ouvrir de compte en banque" [When women couldn't open bank accounts]. Libération (in French). Retrieved May 9, 2025.
  77. Verneuil, Yves (2007). "La Société des agrégées, entre féminisme et esprit de catégorie (1920–1948)" [The Société des agrégées, between feminism and class consciousness (1920–1948)]. Histoire de l'éducation (in French) (115–116): 195–224. doi:10.4000/histoire-education.1426 . Retrieved May 9, 2025.
  78. Godart, Nina (December 19, 2016). "Où sont les femmes ? Les entreprises françaises hors-la-loi" [Where are the women? French companies breaking the law]. BFM Business (in French). Archived from the original on September 28, 2017.
  79. Deborde, Juliette; Kristanadjaja, Gurvan; Luyssen, Johanna (June 19, 2017). "220 femmes tuées par leur conjoint, ignorées par la société" [220 women killed by their partners, ignored by society]. Liberation (in French). Retrieved May 9, 2025.
  80. Lecoq, Titiou (June 23, 2017). "En France, on meurt parce qu'on est une femme" [In France, people die because they are women]. Slate (in French). Retrieved May 9, 2025.
  81. "La lutte contre les violences faites aux femmes : état des lieux" [The fight against violence against women: current situation]. Vie Publique (in French). June 28, 2024. Retrieved May 9, 2025.
  82. Dauphin, Sandrine (2002). "Les associations de femmes et les politiques d'égalité en France : des liens ambigus avec les institutions" [Women's associations and gender equality policies in France: ambiguous links with institutions]. Acteurs Associatifs et Politiques Publiques (in French). 6: 149–170. Retrieved May 9, 2025.

Bibliography

Reports