Geography of Greenland

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Greenland
Native name:
Grønland
Kalaallit Nunaat
Greenland ice sheet AMSL thickness map-en.png
Outline map of Greenland with ice sheet depths. (Much of the area in green has permanent snow cover, but less than 10m (33ft) thick.)
Geography of Greenland
Geography
LocationBetween the Arctic Ocean and the North Atlantic Ocean
Coordinates 64°10′N51°43′W / 64.167°N 51.717°W / 64.167; -51.717
Area2,166,086 km2 (836,330 sq mi)
Area rank 1st
Coastline44,087 km (27394.4 mi)
Highest elevation3,694 m (12119 ft)
Highest point Gunnbjørn
Administration
ProvinceFlag of Greenland.svg  Greenland
Largest settlement Nuuk (Godthåb) (pop. 17,984)
Demographics
Population56,732 (February 8, 2020)
Pop. density0.028/km2 (0.073/sq mi)
Ethnic groups

Greenland is located between the Arctic Ocean and the North Atlantic Ocean, northeast of Canada and northwest of Iceland. The territory comprises the island of Greenland—the largest island in the world—and more than a hundred other smaller islands (see alphabetic list). Greenland has a 1.2-kilometer-long (0.75 mi) border with Canada on Hans Island. [1] A sparse population is confined to small settlements along certain sectors of the coast. Greenland possesses the world's second-largest ice sheet.

Contents

Greenland sits atop the Greenland plate, a subplate of the North American Plate. [2] [3] The Greenland craton is made up of some of the oldest rocks on the face of the earth. The Isua greenstone belt in southwestern Greenland contains the oldest known rocks on Earth, dated at 3.7–3.8 billion years old. [4]

The vegetation is generally sparse, with the only patch of forested land being found in Nanortalik Municipality in the extreme south near Cape Farewell.

The climate is arctic to subarctic, with cool summers and cold winters. The terrain is mostly a flat but gradually sloping icecap that covers all land except for a narrow, mountainous, barren, rocky coast. The lowest elevation is sea level and the highest elevation is the summit of Gunnbjørn Fjeld, the highest point in the Arctic at 3,694 meters (12,119 ft). The northernmost point of the island of Greenland is Cape Morris Jesup, discovered by Admiral Robert Peary in 1900. Natural resources include zinc, lead, iron ore, coal, molybdenum, gold, platinum, uranium, hydropower and fish.

Area

Total area: 2,166,086 km2

Land area: 2,166,086 km2 (410,449 km2 ice-free, 1,755,637 km2 ice-covered)

Maritime claims:

Territorial sea:3 nautical miles (5.6 km; 3.5 mi)

Exclusive fishing zone:200 nautical miles (370.4 km; 230.2 mi)

Land use

Arable land: approximately 6%; some land is used to grow silage.
Permanent crops: Approximately 0%
Other: 100% (2012 est.)

The total population comprises around 56,000 inhabitants, of whom approximately 18,000 live in the capital, Nuuk.

Natural hazards

Continuous ice sheet covers 84% of the country; the rest is permafrost.

Environment – current issues

Protection of the Arctic environment, climate change, pollution of the food chain, excessive hunting [5] of endangered species (walrus, polar bears, narwhal, beluga whale and several sea birds).

Climate

Koppen-Geiger climate classification map at 1-km resolution for Greenland 1991-2020 Koppen-Geiger Map v2 GRL 1991-2020.svg
Köppen–Geiger climate classification map at 1-km resolution for Greenland 1991–2020
Retreat of the Helheim Glacier, Greenland Retreat of the Helheim Glacier, Greenland.jpg
Retreat of the Helheim Glacier, Greenland
Map of Greenland's rate of change in ice sheet height Cambios en la capa de hielo de Groenlandia.jpg
Map of Greenland's rate of change in ice sheet height
Map of Greenland bedrock Topographic map of Greenland bedrock.jpg
Map of Greenland bedrock

Greenland's climate is a tundra climate on and near the coasts and an ice cap climate in inland areas. It typically has short, cool summers and long, moderately cold winters.

Due to Gulf Stream influences, Greenland's winter temperatures are very mild for its latitude. In Nuuk, the capital, average winter temperatures are only −9 °C (16 °F). [6] In comparison, the average winter temperatures for Iqaluit, Nunavut, Canada, are around −27 °C (−17 °F). [7] Conversely, summer temperatures are very low, with an average high around 10 °C (50 °F). [6] This is too low to sustain trees, and the land is treeless tundra.

On the Greenland ice sheet, the temperature is far below freezing throughout the year, [8] and record high temperatures have peaked only slightly above freezing. The record high temperature at Summit Camp is 2.2 °C (36.0 °F). [9]

In the far south of Greenland, there is a very small forest in the Qinngua Valley, due to summer temperatures being barely high enough to sustain trees. There are mountains over 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) high surrounding the valley, which protect it from cold, fast winds travelling across the ice sheet. [10] It is the only natural forest in Greenland, but is only 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) long.

Climate data for Nuuk
MonthJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYear
Record high °C (°F)13.5
(56.3)		13.0
(55.4)		13.2
(55.8)		14.6
(58.3)		18.3
(64.9)		23.8
(74.8)		26.3
(79.3)		25.1
(77.2)		23.8
(74.8)		19.9
(67.8)		15.8
(60.4)		13.2
(55.8)		26.3
(79.3)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F)−5.6
(21.9)		−6.3
(20.7)		−6.8
(19.8)		−1.4
(29.5)		3.4
(38.1)		7.7
(45.9)		10.2
(50.4)		10.4
(50.7)		6.3
(43.3)		1.8
(35.2)		−1.1
(30.0)		−3.4
(25.9)		1.3
(34.3)
Daily mean °C (°F)−8.2
(17.2)		−9.1
(15.6)		−9.2
(15.4)		−3.6
(25.5)		0.8
(33.4)		4.4
(39.9)		6.8
(44.2)		7.3
(45.1)		3.7
(38.7)		−0.3
(31.5)		−3.4
(25.9)		−5.8
(21.6)		−1.4
(29.5)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F)−10.4
(13.3)		−11.5
(11.3)		−11.4
(11.5)		−5.7
(21.7)		−2.5
(27.5)		1.7
(35.1)		3.8
(38.8)		4.0
(39.2)		2.8
(37.0)		−2.1
(28.2)		−5.4
(22.3)		−8
(18)		−3.7
(25.3)
Record low °C (°F)−32.5
(−26.5)		−29.6
(−21.3)		−27.5
(−17.5)		−30.0
(−22.0)		−19.0
(−2.2)		−10.3
(13.5)		−6.6
(20.1)		−4.7
(23.5)		−8.2
(17.2)		−16.6
(2.1)		−24.4
(−11.9)		−25.2
(−13.4)		−32.5
(−26.5)
Average precipitation mm (inches)54.7
(2.15)		51.1
(2.01)		49.1
(1.93)		45.6
(1.80)		56.5
(2.22)		60.6
(2.39)		81.3
(3.20)		89.1
(3.51)		90.2
(3.55)		66.5
(2.62)		75.2
(2.96)		62.0
(2.44)		781.6
(30.77)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm)13.812.715.113.213.010.512.512.514.113.514.314.4159.6
Average snowy days13.612.114.511.49.42.80.10.24.39.812.713.8104.7
Average relative humidity (%)78798181848487878378767781
Mean monthly sunshine hours 15.565.0148.8180.0189.1204.0195.3164.3141.080.630.06.21,419.8
Mean daily sunshine hours 0.52.34.86.06.16.86.35.34.72.61.00.23.9
Source 1: Danish Meteorological Institute [6] [11]
Source 2: Meteo Climat (record highs and lows), [12] Deutscher Wetterdienst (humidity 1961–1990, sun 1980–1990) [13]

Climate change

The Greenland ice sheet is 3 kilometers (1.9 mi) thick and broad enough to blanket an area the size of Mexico. The ice is so massive that its weight presses the bedrock of Greenland below sea level and is so all-concealing that not until recently did scientists discover Greenland's Grand Canyon or the possibility that Greenland might actually be three islands. [14]

If the ice melted, the interior bedrock below sea level would be covered by water. It is not clear whether this water would be at sea level or a lake above sea level. If it would be at sea level it could connect to the sea at Ilulissat Icefjord, in Baffin Bay and near Nordostrundingen, creating three large islands. [15] But it is most likely that it would be a lake with one drain.

It is thought that before the last Ice Age, Greenland had mountainous edges and a lowland (and probably very dry) center which drained to the sea via one big river flowing out westwards, past where Disko Island is now. [16]

There is concern about sea level rise caused by ice loss (melt and glaciers falling into the sea) on Greenland. Between 1997 and 2003 ice loss was 68–92 km3/a (16–22 cu mi/a), compared to about 60 km3/a (14 cu mi/a) for 1993/4–1998/9. Half of the increase was from higher summer melting, with the rest caused by the movements of some glaciers exceeding the speeds needed to balance upstream snow accumulation. [17] A complete loss of ice on Greenland would cause a sea level rise of as much as 6.40 meters (21.0 ft).

Researchers at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the University of Kansas reported in February 2006 that the glaciers are melting twice as fast as they were five years ago. By 2005, Greenland was beginning to lose more ice volume than anyone expected – an annual loss of up to 52 cubic miles or 217 cubic kilometres per year, according to more recent satellite gravity measurements released by JPL. The increased ice loss may be partially offset by increased snow accumulation due to increased precipitation.

Between 1991 and 2006, monitoring of the weather at one location (Swiss Camp) found that the average winter temperature had risen almost 10  °F (5.6  °C ).

Recently, Greenland's three largest outlet glaciers have started moving faster, satellite data show. These are the Jacobshavn Isbræ at Ilulissat (Jacobshavn) on the western edge of Greenland, and the Kangerdlugssuaq and Helheim glaciers on the eastern edge of Greenland. The two latter accelerated greatly during the years 2004–2005, but returned to pre-2004 velocities in 2006. [18] The accelerating ice flow has been accompanied by a dramatic increase in seismic activity. In March 2006, researchers at Harvard University and the Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory at Columbia University reported that the glaciers now generate swarms of earthquakes up to magnitude 5.0. [14]

The retreat of Greenland's ice is revealing islands that were thought to be part of the mainland. In September 2005 Dennis Schmitt discovered an island 400 miles (644 km) north of the Arctic Circle in eastern Greenland which he named Uunartoq Qeqertaq, Inuit for "warming island". [19]

Future projections

In the Arctic, temperatures are rising faster than anywhere else in the world. Greenland is losing 200 billion tonnes of ice per year. Research suggests that this could increase the sea levels' rise by 30 centimeters by the end of the century. These projections have the possibility of changing as satellite data only dates back to 40 years ago. This means that researchers must view old photographs of glaciers and compare them to ones taken today to determine the future of Greenland's ice. [20]

Temperature extremes

Climate data for Greenland
MonthJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYear
Record high °C (°F)15.3
(59.5)		16.0
(60.8)		16.0
(60.8)		19.1
(66.4)		24.8
(76.6)		30.1
(86.2)		26.3
(79.3)		25.2
(77.4)		24.9
(76.8)		19.3
(66.7)		21.6
(70.9)		15.9
(60.6)		30.1
(86.2)
Record low °C (°F)−66.1
(−87.0)		−63.3
(−81.9)		−64.8
(−84.6)		−57.3
(−71.1)		−49.0
(−56.2)		−37.5
(−35.5)		−33.0
(−27.4)		−39.2
(−38.6)		−46.0
(−50.8)		−55.4
(−67.7)		−60.0
(−76.0)		−69.6
(−93.3)		−69.6
(−93.3)
Source 1: Weather Extremes Greenland, archived from the original on 9 August 2020, retrieved 28 July 2020 (all record lows except for Jan, Mar, May, Dec)(Jan and Feb record highs), Meteo Climat (Mar-Dec highs)
Source 2: Georgi, Johannes (1935), Eismitte record low, PANGAEA - Data Publisher for Earth & Environmental Science, doi:10.1594/PANGAEA.604003 , retrieved 28 July 2020 (March record low),

May record low at Summit , retrieved 28 July 2020 (May record low), WUnderground , retrieved 28 July 2020 (record low all time)

Highest temperatures

MonthTemperatureDateLocation
January15.3 °C (59.5 °F)29 January 2003Nuuk, Sermersooq
February16.0 °C (60.8 °F)20 February 2005Nanortailak, Kujalleq
March16.0 °C (60.8 °F)31 March 1975Narsarsuaq, Kujalleq
April19.1 °C (66.4 °F)26 April 2016Narsarsuaq, Kujalleq
May24.8 °C (76.6 °F)29 May 2012Narsarsuaq, Kujalleq
June30.1 °C (86.2 °F)23 June 1915Ivittuut, Sermersooq
July26.3 °C (79.3 °F)6 July 2008Nuuk, Sermersooq
August25.2 °C (77.4 °F)3 August 1899Tasillaq, Sermersooq
September24.9 °C (76.8 °F)2 September 2010Nuuk, Sermersooq
October19.3 °C (66.7 °F)5 October 2016Tasillaq, Sermersooq
November21.6 °C (70.9 °F)21 November 2015Tasillaq, Sermersooq
December15.9 °C (60.6 °F)21 December 2001Narsarsuaq, Kujalleq

Lowest temperatures

MonthTemperatureDateLocation
January−66.1 °C (−87.0 °F)9 January 1954North Ice, Northeast Greenland
February−63.3 °C (−81.9 °F)21 February 2002Summit Camp Station, Northeast Greenland
March−64.8 °C (−84.6 °F)20 March 1931Eismitte, Northeast Greenland
April−57.3 °C (−71.1 °F)21 April 2011Summit Camp Station, Northeast Greenland
May−49.0 °C (−56.2 °F)9 May 2018Summit Camp Station, Northeast Greenland
June−37.5 °C (−35.5 °F)1 June 2011Summit Camp Station, Northeast Greenland
July−33.0 °C (−27.4 °F)4 July 2017Summit Camp Station, Northeast Greenland
August−39.2 °C (−38.6 °F)29 August 2004Summit Camp Station, Northeast Greenland
September−46.0 °C (−50.8 °F)24 September 2009Summit Camp Station, Northeast Greenland
October−55.4 °C (−67.7 °F)26 October 2018Summit Camp Station, Northeast Greenland
November−60.0 °C (−76.0 °F)26 November 2001Summit Camp Station, Northeast Greenland
December−69.6 °C (−93.3 °F)22 December 1991Klinck Station, Northeast Greenland

Topography

The ice sheet covering Greenland varies significantly in elevation across the landmass, rising dramatically between the coastline at sea level and the East-Central interior, where elevations reach 3,200 meters (10,500 ft). [21] The coastlines are rocky and predominantly barren with fjords. [22] Numerous small islands spread from the Central to Southern coastlines. [22]

Greenland's mountain ranges are partially or completely buried by ice. The highest mountains are in the Watkins Range, which runs along the eastern coast. Greenland's highest mountain is Gunnbjorn Fjeld with a height of 3,700 meters (12,139 ft). [22]

Scientists discovered an asteroid impact crater in the northwestern region of Greenland, buried underneath the ice sheet. At a size larger than Washington, D.C., it is the first impact crater found beneath one of Earth's ice sheets. [23]

Extreme points

This is a list of the extreme points of Greenland, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.

Territory of Greenland

Mainland Greenland

Towns

Greenland has 17 towns – settlements with more than 500 inhabitants. Nuuk is the largest town – and the capital – with roughly one third of the country's urban population. Sisimiut with approximately 5,500 inhabitants is the second largest town, while Ilulissat is number three with around 5,000 inhabitants.

History of exploration

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greenland</span> Autonomous territory of Denmark

Greenland is an autonomous territory of the Kingdom of Denmark. It is the larger of two autonomous territories within the kingdom, the other being the Faroe Islands; the citizens of both territories are full citizens of Denmark. As Greenland is one of the Overseas Countries and Territories of the European Union, citizens of Greenland are European Union citizens. The capital and largest city of Greenland is Nuuk. Greenland lies between the Arctic and Atlantic oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. It is the world's largest island, and is the location of the northernmost point of land in the world—Kaffeklubben Island off the northern coast is the world's northernmost undisputed point of land; Cape Morris Jesup on the mainland was thought to be so until the 1960s. Economically, Greenland is heavily reliant on aid from Denmark, amounting to near half of the territory's total public revenue.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ilulissat</span> City in Greenland

Ilulissat, also Jacobshavn or Jakobshav, is the municipal seat and largest town of the Avannaata municipality in western Greenland, located approximately 350 km (220 mi) north of the Arctic Circle. With a population of 4,670 as of 2020, it is the third-largest city in Greenland, after Nuuk and Sisimiut. The city is home to almost as many sled-dogs as people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gunnbjørn Fjeld</span> Tallest mountain in Greenland

Gunnbjørn Fjeld is the highest mountain in Greenland, Denmark, and north of the Arctic Circle. It is a nunatak, a rocky peak protruding through glacial ice.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Qeqertarsuaq</span> Town on Disko Island, western Greenland

Qeqertarsuaq is a port and town in Qeqertalik municipality, located on the south coast of Disko Island on the west coast of Greenland. Founded in 1773, the town is now home to a campus of the University of Copenhagen known as Arctic Station. Qeqertarsuaq is the Kalaallisut name for Disko Island and is also now used for several other islands on Greenland, including those formerly known as Upernavik and Herbert Island. Qeqertarsuaq means 'the big island' in Kalaallisut.

This is a list of the extreme points of The Americas, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location on the continent. The continent's southernmost point is often said to be Cape Horn, which is the southernmost point of the Chilean islands. The Americas cross 134° of longitude east to west and 124° of latitude north to south.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peary Land</span> Peninsula in northern Greenland

Peary Land is a peninsula in northern Greenland, extending into the Arctic Ocean. It reaches from Victoria Fjord in the west to Independence Fjord in the south and southeast, and to the Arctic Ocean in the north, with Cape Morris Jesup, the northernmost point of Greenland's mainland, and Cape Bridgman in the northeast.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jacobshavn Glacier</span> Glacier in Greenland

Jacobshavn Glacier, also known as Ilulissat Glacier, is a large outlet glacier in West Greenland. It is located near the Greenlandic town of Ilulissat and ends at the sea in the Ilulissat Icefjord.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kulusuk</span> Place in Greenland, Kingdom of Denmark

Kulusuk, formerly Kap Dan, is a settlement in the Sermersooq municipality in southeastern Greenland, located on an island of the same name. The settlement population of 241 includes many Danes choosing to live there due to the airport. In the Kalaallisut language, the name of the village means "Chest of a Black Guillemot".

This is a list of the extreme points of the Arctic, the points of Arctic lands that are farther to the north than any other location classified by continent and country, latitude and longitude, and distance to the North Pole. The list is sorted from north to south.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate of the Arctic</span>

The climate of the Arctic is characterized by long, cold winters and short, cool summers. There is a large amount of variability in climate across the Arctic, but all regions experience extremes of solar radiation in both summer and winter. Some parts of the Arctic are covered by ice year-round, and nearly all parts of the Arctic experience long periods with some form of ice on the surface.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Outline of Greenland</span> Overview of and topical guide to Greenland

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Greenland:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate of Greenland</span>

Greenland's climate is a tundra climate on and near the coasts and an ice cap climate in inland areas. It typically has short, cool summers and long, moderately cold winters.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Index of Greenland-related articles</span>

The following is an alphabetical list of topics related to the nation of Kalaallit Nunaat (Greenland).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate of the Nordic countries</span>

The climate of the Nordic countries is that of a region in Northern Europe that consists of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden and their associated territories, which include the Faroe Islands, Greenland and Åland. Stockholm, Sweden has on average the warmest summer of the Nordic capitals, with an average maximum temperature of 23 °C (73 °F) in July; Copenhagen, Oslo and Helsinki have an average July maximum temperature of 22 °C (72 °F).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Petermann Glacier</span> Glacier in Greenland

Petermann Glacier is a large glacier located in North-West Greenland to the east of Nares Strait. It connects the Greenland ice sheet to the Arctic Ocean at 81°10' north latitude, near Hans Island.

Upernavik Archipelago is a vast coastal archipelago in the Avannaata municipality in northwestern Greenland, off the shores of northeastern Baffin Bay. The archipelago extends from the northwestern coast of Sigguup Nunaa peninsula in the south at approximately 71°50′N56°00′W to the southern end of Melville Bay in the north at approximately 74°50′N57°30′W.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Watkins Range</span> Mountain range in Greenland

The Watkins Range is Greenland's highest mountain range. It is located in King Christian IX Land, Sermersooq municipality.

Payer Peak, is a mountain in King Christian X Land, Northeast Greenland. Administratively it is part of the Northeast Greenland National Park zone.

References

  1. ↑ "On tiny Hans Island, Denmark and Canada create world's newest land border". Big Think. 14 June 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
  2. ↑ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Baffin Bay and Baffin Land"  . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
  3. ↑ "Baffin Bay" (PDF). Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 June 2011. Retrieved 4 October 2009.
  4. ↑ Appel, Peter W.U., Hugh R. Rollinson, and Jacques L.R. Touret. (2001) "Remnants of an Early Archaean (>3.75 Ga) sea-floor, hydrothermal system in the Isua Greenstone Belt." Precambrian Research, 112.1–2, 15 November, pp. 27–49.
  5. ↑ "EcoAdvise & Communication". Archived from the original on 5 April 2010. Retrieved 5 February 2007.
  6. 1 2 3 "DMI Report 18–19: Climatological Standard Normals 1981–2010 Denmark, The Faroe Islands and Greenland Based on Data Published in DMI Reports 18–08, 18–04 and 18–05" (PDF). Danish Meteorological Institute. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 February 2019. Retrieved 10 February 2019.
  7. ↑ "Iqaluit A". Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010. Environment Canada. 31 October 2011. Climate ID: 2402590. Archived from the original on 16 May 2017. Retrieved 24 February 2014.
  8. ↑ Shuman, Christopher A.; Steffen, Konrad; Box, Jason E.; Stearns, Charles R. (2001). "A Dozen Years of Temperature Observations at the Summit: Central Greenland Automatic Weather Stations 1987–99". Journal of Applied Meteorology. 40 (4). American Meteorological Society: 741–752. Bibcode:2001JApMe..40..741S. doi: 10.1175/1520-0450(2001)040<0741:adyoto>2.0.co;2 . hdl: 11603/24315 . ISSN   0894-8763.
  9. ↑ "Vejrekstremer Grønland". Danish Meteorological Institute (in Danish). Archived from the original on 27 December 2021. Retrieved 19 April 2020.
  10. ↑ "Qinngua Valley". Wondermondo. 23 June 2013. Retrieved 20 January 2015.
  11. ↑ "The Observed Climate of Greenland, 1958–99 with Climatological Standard Normals, 1961–90" (PDF). Danish Meteorological Institute . Retrieved 31 October 2019.
  12. ↑ "Station Nuuk" (in French). Météo Climat. Retrieved 10 February 2019.
  13. ↑ "Klimatafel von Godthaab (Nuuk) / Grönland (zu Dänemark)" (PDF). Baseline climate means (1961–1990) from stations all over the world (in German). Deutscher Wetterdienst. Retrieved 16 December 2019.
  14. 1 2 "Greenland's Ice Sheet Is Slip-Sliding Away", Los Angeles Times, June 25, 2006
  15. ↑ "Is the world's fastest-moving glacier set to speed up even more?". Center for Environmental Journalism. 23 October 2010. Archived from the original on 3 December 2011.
  16. ↑ "Arts and Culture Archives".
  17. ↑ Krabill, W., et al., 2004, Greenland Ice Sheet: increased Coastal Thinning, Geophysical Research Letters, 31 L24402
  18. ↑ Howat, Ian M.; Joughin, Ian R.; Scambos, Ted A. (8 February 2007). "Rapid Changes in Ice Discharge from Greenland Outlet Glaciers". Science. 315 (5818): 1559–61. Bibcode:2007Sci...315.1559H. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.395.1108 . doi:10.1126/science.1138478. PMID   17289940. S2CID   27719836.
  19. ↑ "The Warming of Greenland", New York Times, January 16, 2007
  20. ↑ "180,000 forgotten photos reveal the future of Greenland’s ice", Nature, July 27, 2016
  21. ↑ "Topography of Greenland". earthobservatory.nasa.gov. 26 December 2004. Retrieved 15 November 2018.
  22. 1 2 3 "Greenland Landforms and Land Statistics". www.worldatlas.com. Retrieved 15 November 2018.
  23. ↑ "Ice Age Asteroid Crater Discovered Beneath Greenland Glacier" . Archived from the original on 2 January 2022. Retrieved 15 November 2018.
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