Reindeer hunting in Greenland

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A hunting campsite in Nuup Kangerlua fjord ReindeerHuntGreenland1.jpg
A hunting campsite in Nuup Kangerlua fjord

Reindeer hunting in Greenland is of great importance to the Greenlandic Inuit and sports hunters, both residents and tourists. [1] Reindeer (caribou) [2] are an important source of meat, and harvesting them has always played an important role in the history, culture, and traditions of the Greenlandic Inuit. Controlled hunting is important for the welfare of reindeer, the quality of life for Inuit, both as food, and part of their culture and Greenlandic culture in general, and the preservation of tundra grazing areas. Therefore, scientific research is regularly performed to determine the quotas needed to maintain a proper ecological balance.

Contents

Background

A large bull reindeer Caribou.jpg
A large bull reindeer

Reindeer hunting by humans has a very long history and caribou/wild reindeer "may well be the species of single greatest importance in the entire anthropological literature on hunting." [3]

In Greenland, wild reindeer have been hunted as a source of food, clothing, shelter, and tools by the Inuit - the indigenous peoples that populate the Arctic and colder regions. Methods that they have employed include crossbow, bow and arrow, snares, driving, trapping pits, driving them off cliffs or into lakes and then spearing them from kayaks, and now using modern firearms. The entire reindeer, including fur, skin, antlers, and bones have been used. Their meat, viscera, internal organs, and even stomach contents, have all been utilized as food, both raw, dried, smoked, and cooked. Today reindeer are primarily hunted by residents and tourists for their meat, but mature animals may also be the objects of trophy hunting because of the often large size of their antlers. They have the largest antlers relative to body size among deer. [4]

In Greenland more reindeer are harvested than any other big game land mammal species. Reindeer meat is an important staple in most households, and the populace waits with great anticipation for the autumn hunting season to begin. It is an opportunity to stock up the kitchen pantry and freezer with meat for the coming season and to enjoy the adventure of the hunt.

Game harvesting conditions in Greenland can be extreme, and the unpredictable forces of nature can be hazardous to hunters. Greenland is large and long with differing hunting customs and regulations, as well as weather patterns, depending on the region and season. The Greenland wilderness is sensitive and hunters are expected to respect it and "leave nothing but footprints."

Inuit identity: hunting and reindeer

Cultural status of the hunting experience

Hunting has always been an extremely important aspect of the Greenland Inuit culture:

"The Inuit culture is the most pure hunting culture in existence. Having adapted to the extreme living conditions in the High Arctic of the North American continent for at least four thousand years, Inuit are not even hunter-gatherers. Inuit are hunters, pure and simple." (Henriette Rasmussen, Minister in Greenland Home Rule Government) [5]

Even today hunting's importance is confirmed by the Greenland Home Rule Government:

"Hunting is the heart and soul of Greenlandic culture.... Hunting is also very important from a cultural perspective. In a society such as Greenland, which for centuries was based on subsistence hunting (until about fifty years ago), hunting is still of great cultural importance. Irrespective of the fact that most live like wage-earners in a modern industrial society, many Greenlanders identity is still deeply rooted in the hunting." [6]

Reindeer hunting has a special status in the populace. Shooting a muskox provides four times as much meat as a reindeer, but "Greenlanders would much rather have caribou or reindeer meat than musk ox meat," says Josefine Nymand. [7]

"... the experience is just as important [as the meat]. It is simply the most wonderful part of the year. The trips in for the caribou hunt in the beautiful autumn weather have a great social and physical meaning for people's wellbeing. It has many functions." (Peter Nielsen, Head of Office at the Ministry of Environment and Nature) [7]

Inuit welfare and hunting culture

An Inuit family (1917) Eskimo Family NGM-v31-p564.jpg
An Inuit family (1917)

The long history of mutual dependence between humans and reindeer [3] necessitates continuing efforts to safeguard their relationship and the welfare of both parties. Reindeer hunting – which is also commonplace in many other parts of the world – is considered so vital to the cultural heritage of certain groups that there is an attempt [8] [9] [10] being made to get it placed on UNESCO's World Heritage List. [11]

The identity of the Inuit is closely tied to the geography, history and the attitudes toward hunting – "For Inuit, ecology, hunting and culture are synonymous." [12] – and their identity as hunters is under attack. Those attacks are "... viewed in the Arctic as a direct assault on culture, identity as well as sustainable use," [13] and Inuit are reacting:

"... for the Inuit, animal rights campaigns are just the latest in a long litany of religious, industry, and government policies imposed by outsiders – policies which ignore Inuit values and realities, and threaten the survival of one of the world's last remaining aboriginal hunting cultures." [14]

Therefore, the circumpolar peoples and their organizations are actively engaged in attempts to protect their welfare, identity, interests, and culture, including their hunting culture. The "Kuujjuaq Declaration" [15] addressed perceived attacks on their autonomy and rights, and recommended that the Inuit Circumpolar Conference (now the Inuit Circumpolar Council) "undertake a comprehensive study on how best to address global forces, such as the 'animal rights' and other destructive movements that aim to destroy Inuit sustainable use of living resources, and to report back to the next General Assembly on its findings." [16] The International Arctic Science Committee shares these viewpoints and therefore one of its objectives is to study the "sustainable use of living resources of high value to Arctic residents." [17]

Reindeer welfare, sustainability, and quotas

Biologists and other research scientists constantly monitor the welfare, living conditions, and health of reindeer, as well as the ecological health of their habitat, and they make recommendations and set quotas designed to ensure that game resources and natural biodiversity are protected, managed, and maintained. [18] [19] [20] Many factors, some of them difficult to measure or predict, are analyzed including natural cycles, parasites, disease, short-term weather conditions (relative harshness of winter or summer), long-term climate changes, and condition of food sources. Hunting is not the only factor affecting reindeer welfare, but it is one area that can be managed to some degree.

Since reindeer in southwestern Greenland have no naturally occurring non-human predators, [21] [22] harvesting quotas are established to help regulate the number of reindeer in an area and prevent overgrazing and death from starvation. During the winter, the great effort of pawing down (known as "cratering") [23] [24] through the snow to their favorite food, a lichen known as reindeer moss, can cost them too many calories in expended energy, causing them to lose strength and die. [25] [26] [27] Without human monitoring and regulation, mass starvation of reindeer would be a recurring problem.

Harvesting recommendations are also based on other prognostic factors, among them estimates of reindeer population density, total population in various regions, and availability of adequate food sources. [28] Since these estimates are difficult to make and can vary over time for each region, the recommendations and quotas are constantly adapted to the local needs, [20] sometimes quite radically. Historically, Greenland's reindeer population has fluctuated widely. For example, it numbered around 100,000 in the early 1970s and then was believed to have dropped to about 9,000 in 1993. [29] Hunting regulations reflected these mistaken and hotly debated estimates and harvesting was suspended from the summer of 1993 until the autumn of 1995, whereupon hunting was once again allowed. [7] [22] [30]

The controversial suspension of hunting in 1993-1995 "created much public anger." Hunters' local knowledge contradicted the official estimates and a survey in 2000-2001 confirmed the hunters' claims that there were far more animals to be harvested. Quotas were then radically increased and the hunting season was lengthened: "In an effort to reduce caribou number and density, open harvests were continued in 2003, 2004 and 2005." [22]

In 2005, improved counting methods revealed that the previous estimates had indeed been misleading and that the population density was far too high, with 3-4 caribou per km2, rather than the preferred 1.2 per km2. In 2006 the number of reindeer was estimated to be more than 100,000, which was still too many animals. [31] A constant concern is that overpopulation can lead to increased mortality of calves, damage to feeding grounds, and a population crash:

"Independent of climate and genetics, caribou calf mortality increases with high population density and grazing pressure.... [O]ver-abundance of caribou on the range may be a current problem, which may soon become an acute problem. Unfortunately, it is unknown how much longer the present range can continue to support the current caribou numbers. If the herds are allowed to continue status quo or increase further there is a clear risk of lasting damage to ranges. If the ranges are destroyed, caribou stocks can be expected to crash. [22]

Scientists and hunters continue to work together for the best good of all concerned parties: the reindeer, the hunters, the general populace of Greenland, and the very sensitive and vulnerable range grounds, since Greenland's tundra is more sensitive than elsewhere in the Arctic due to the ever-present inland ice sheet. This ice sheet acts like an open refrigerator door, stunting the growth of vegetation along the coastal regions and making recovery a slow process.

Reindeer

Running reindeer Denali National Park Caribou Herd 1249px.jpg
Running reindeer

Reindeer (or caribou) [32] (also called tuttu by the Greenlandic Inuit [33] and rensdyr or rener by Danes) are the only deer species in which both sexes have antlers. Greenland animals can vary considerably in size, with females weighing up to 90 kg (198 lb) and the males ("bulls") 150 kg (331 lb). Other species of reindeer can be larger or smaller. In Greenland both sexes may be hunted. Although they have antlers, they rarely use them against humans, even when backed into a corner by the Sami people who herd, milk, and slaughter them for food in other lands. Their usual defense against humans is to pull away or flee, often uphill. Males use their antlers when sparring against each other, and reindeer may use them as a last resort to defend themselves and their young against predators such as wolves, [34] although wolves present no threat in southwestern Greenland. [21] Although rarely aggressive toward humans, when in rut bulls will defend their harems from other bulls, and when humans come between a bull and his harem, attacks have been recorded. [35]

Tame reindeer are known to be curious, but even wild reindeer can be curious in some situations. [36] [37] [38] [39] The wild reindeer is a shy animal and it reacts very quickly to sudden sounds or movements as well as the smell of strangers. [40] In spite of this, inexperienced animals may even approach quite closely to a hunter and curiously observe while the hunter is field dressing a downed animal. They have good hearing and a good sense of smell, but have poor eyesight. They may react to a hunter's movements, but not necessarily to his form if he doesn't move. [41] Under the right conditions, a stealthy hunter may be able to approach surprisingly close to a reindeer, even when the hunter is in full sight of the animal. Many animals are shot at relatively close range (10–50 meters).

Three subspecies in Greenland

Isortoq Reindeer Station in Summer 2011 Reindeer Station in Greenland.jpg
Isortoq Reindeer Station in Summer 2011

Three subspecies [30] of reindeer live in western Greenland where some interbreeding has occurred:

  1. The most common variety of reindeer in Greenland is the native wild barren-ground caribou (Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus), which is a medium-sized race of reindeer also found in Canada.
  2. The second type are the feral (semi-domestic) mountain reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus), brought from Norway in 1952. They are larger and were first introduced at a game reserve in the Kapisillit region of Godthåb's fjord. Their care was the responsibility of Sami herders [42] who also controlled their harvesting and the meat preparation in a now-abandoned slaughterhouse at Itinnera. [43] [44] "Later animals from Kapisillit were released at several more locations to establish feral populations, which might support a hunting harvest. There is evidence for genetic mixing of native caribou and feral reindeer at some of the locations where reindeer were released." [19] [45] The Isortoq Reindeer Station received Norwegian Reindeer from the Itinnera breeding stock in 1973 and located a 2000 head herd on a 1500 km square concession area. The company had its own abattoir and processing plant (now closed) and annually exported meat to the EU and N. America.
  3. A third type of reindeer may possibly belong to the Peary caribou subspecies (Rangifer tarandus pearyi). They are smaller and fewer in number and live in northwestern Greenland. [46]

Reindeer hunting

Practical details

Bolt action rifle with scope Openboltcropped.jpg
Bolt action rifle with scope
Hollow point bullet Halvmantlad.jpg
Hollow point bullet

Two main types of hunters are involved in harvesting reindeer: licensed commercial hunters and private resident sporting hunters, with tourists, trophy hunters, and research scientists harvesting a few more animals.

Transportation to and from hunting areas is nearly always done by boat. The rest of the transportation is by foot. If the hunting area is far inland, it may involve carrying equipment to a lake, and then transporting it across the lake to a campsite using a smaller type of boat, such as a rowboat, canoe (including collapsible models), or a rubber inflatable boat. Some lakes have boats permanently left (or hidden in the bushes) near the shores, and they are sometimes used by hunters (not necessarily the owners) who frequent the area.

In 2006 the only hunting weapons allowed for reindeer harvesting were bolt action, non-automatic rifles, using .222 Remington caliber cartridges or larger. [47] A good, large rifle scope is important, as shots at longer distances may be necessary, and visibility may be poor because of snowfall, fog, or limited lighting levels. Folding or fixed-blade hunting knives are necessary for many purposes. Binoculars with large objective diameter are used to spot prey at great distances, sometimes in waning light.

Rifles (both bolt action and semi-automatic) of other calibers, shotguns, and other types of weapons may be used for other game such as ptarmigan, Arctic hares, and Arctic foxes, which are often encountered during a reindeer hunt.

Regulations and hunting licenses

Harvesting is governed by regulations and requires a hunting license indicating the number of animals to be harvested, as well as post-hunting reporting of results (a jawbone with teeth). Such licenses can be obtained by those who have established two years of residency. Special arrangements are made for tourists and trophy hunters. Information can be sought and licenses obtained (by application and payment) from the local municipality.

Airplanes, helicopters, and other motorized vehicles (such as snowmobiles), [48] are not allowed to be used for hunting or land transport of animals or hunters. Boats are allowed for transport to and from hunting areas. A lead identification tag must be attached to the carcass until it is sold or used. The meat is owned by the hunter and no extra fees are charged for it.

In 2006 the open season extended from August 10 - September 15. [47] In exceptional cases the dates can be changed, for example periods of bad weather and too much ice, resulting in a lengthening of the season. [49] Winter hunting is an option for those specially licensed as commercial hunters (normally reserved for Inuit residents).

Game preparation and transport

Hunter using a headband to drag a reindeer on snow Reindeerdrag.jpg
Hunter using a headband to drag a reindeer on snow

Once downed, a reindeer is quickly field dressed by removing the viscera. The skin, head, and viscera are often discarded and left for consumption by foxes, ravens, and other birds. The meat is kept cool to minimize decomposition and protected from blow-flies by the use of mesh game bags, and any fly eggs (very visible) and maggots are removed immediately. [50] [51] The cool climate makes it possible for the meat to be kept out in the open longer than in warmer climates, therefore a hunting expedition can last several days without a serious loss of meat quality. Once home again, the meat can be hung and aged for a few days before further processing. [52]

Carrying a reindeer over a long distance in rugged mountainous terrain can be difficult and very strenuous. More than five kilometers each way is not uncommon. [27] If the animal is very large, it may only be possible to transport one half at a time. In Greenland, reindeer meat is commonly carried over the shoulders, [53] possibly tied to a backpack frame, or carried on the back with support from a headband, the last being a method preferred by the Inuit. Unskinned game may also be dragged on snow, or allowed to slide down steep, snow-covered hillsides, thus saving much work and freeing the hands for support while climbing downhill.

Hunting methods

Hunter carrying reindeer meat Reindeer carry Kasper.jpg
Hunter carrying reindeer meat

There are several hunting strategies that can be used for harvesting reindeer:

Note: Loose dogs, dog driving, and coursing are not allowed in Greenland.

Hunting conditions in Greenland

A reindeer hunt can be a short afternoon outing without much equipment, or a week-long affair with all the equipment that such an endeavor requires. New hunters may experience a form of culture shock [54] the first time they enter the wilderness, and may require mental acclimatization when returning to civilization. It may feel like a fleeting period of mental confusion, similar to the "sea legs" felt by inexperienced boaters.

Reindeer harvesting can be done in groups or alone, with lone hunting generally requiring extra safety precautions. While reindeer harvesting is usually a pleasant experience and the following problems may never be encountered, it can also be exhausting and does entail some degree of safety risk. Good hygiene and adequate hydration can protect against infections, diarrhea, and gastroenteritis. A small first aid kit should be carried when away from the campsite or boat, and preparations should be made for the various hazards of outdoor recreation. The terrain can be hilly, mountainous, uneven, and stony, with hidden crevices or holes. It may also be marshy, muddy, and wet. It may be necessary to cross streams and rivers, and slippery rocks present a hazard. If there is snow and ice, there can be cornices, crevasses, and avalanches, although snow can make it easier to spot and track reindeer.

The weather during the beginning of the autumn hunting season is often pleasant, relatively warm, and mild, but it can change very quickly. Hunters may encounter fog, rain, wind, and winter conditions. Occasionally the situation can quickly approach a worst-case scenario with events such as katabatic winds, storms, snow, hail, sleet, freezing rain, blizzards, and polar cyclones, even in the late summer. Lack of preparation can have fatal consequences.

Using a compass in Greenland involves accounting for a very extreme [55] magnetic declination. Failure to calculate correctly can send a hunter in the wrong direction, leading to complete loss of bearings. Getting lost in bad weather can waste precious time, forcing the hunter to overnight in very wet, cold, and unpleasant conditions. Hypothermia can further complicate matters and decrease the hunter's ability to think clearly, causing them to lose their bearings even more. A fight for survival may then ensue. Deaths are relatively rare, but they do happen.

See also

Notes and references

Notes

  1. ↑ Trophy hunting in Greenland, Greenland Tourist Bureau. Retrieved 2010-17-12
  2. ↑ "Rangifer tarandus (Caribou, Peary Caribou, Reindeer)". The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. December 24, 2015. Retrieved July 11, 2018. The world#s Caribou and Reindeer are classified as a single species Rangifer tarandus. Reindeer is the European name for the species while in North America, the species is known as Caribou.
  3. 1 2 "In North America and Eurasia the species has long been an important resource–in many areas the most important resource–for peoples inhabiting the northern boreal forest and tundra regions. Known human dependence on caribou/wild reindeer has a long history, beginning in the Middle Pleistocene (Banfield 1961:170; Kurtén 1968:170) and continuing to the present....The caribou/wild reindeer is thus an animal that has been a major resource for humans throughout a tremendous geographic area and across a time span of tens of thousands of years." Ernest S. Burch, Jr. The Caribou/Wild Reindeer as a Human Resource. American Antiquity, Vol. 37, No. 3 (Jul., 1972), pp. 339-368. Retrieved 2010-17-12
  4. ↑ New World Deer (Capriolinae) Retrieved 2010-17-12 Archived July 7, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
  5. ↑ Rasmussen H. Sustainable Greenland and Indigenous Ideals. Henriette Rasmussen, Minister of Culture, Education, Science and Church of the Government of Greenland. Retrieved 2010-17-12
  6. ↑ Hunting in Greenland. - Greenland Home Rule Government. Archived July 15, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
  7. 1 2 3 Caribou and muskoxen are meat and adventure. - The Danish-Greenlandic Environmental Cooperation. Archived September 27, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
  8. ↑ Reindeer hunting as world heritage: A ten-thousand-year-long heritage. - Reindeer hunting as world heritage. Retrieved 2010-17-12
  9. ↑ About the project. - Reindeer hunting as world heritage. Retrieved 2010-17-12
  10. ↑ Børge Brende to chair the World Heritage. - Reindeer hunting as world heritage. Retrieved 2010-17-12
  11. ↑ UNESCO's World Heritage List. - UNESCO Retrieved 2010-17-12
  12. ↑ Wenzel G. "Animal Rights, Human Rights: Ecology, Economy and Ideology in the Canadian Arctic" (1991).
  13. ↑ Ethics and morality. Archived 2007-05-06 at the Wayback Machine - Dept. of Economic Development and Transportation, Nunavut Territory
  14. ↑ Alan Herscovici. Forgotten Story: The impact of "animal-rights" campaigns on the Inuit. Archived 2007-04-16 at the Wayback Machine - National Council for Science and the Environment
  15. ↑ The Kuujjuaq Declaration. Archived 2007-08-21 at the Wayback Machine - Inuit Circumpolar Conference
  16. ↑ Kuujjuaq Declaration: Archived 2007-09-28 at the Wayback Machine Proceedings of ICC's 9th General Assembly, 11–16 August 2002. Inuit Circumpolar Conference (Canada)
  17. ↑ Objectives of International Arctic Science Committee. Archived 2002-08-29 at the Wayback Machine - ProClim: Forum for Climate and Global Change; Forum of the Swiss Academy of Sciences
  18. ↑ Scientists elsewhere do the same thing: "To guarantee rational use of this population and meet interests of both Taimyr and Evenki Autonomous Areas, federal bodies are responsible for fixing science-substantiated quotas for wild reindeer hunting." [usurped]
  19. 1 2 Christine Cuyler. Appendix B: Greenland Caribou / Reindeer. Archived 2005-04-30 at the Wayback Machine - Greenland Institute of Natural Resources
  20. 1 2 L. Christine Cuyler & Lars Witting. Caribou harvest advice 2006. Archived 2007-05-10 at the Wayback Machine - Greenland Institute of Natural Resources
  21. 1 2 Christine Cuyler. Appendix B: Greenland Caribou / Reindeer. Archived 2005-04-30 at the Wayback Machine "The primary distribution, 74 percent of total abundance, is in West Greenland (61°-69°N), which may by roughly identified as the southern half of Greenland's west coast. No wolves (Canis lupus) or other potential predators (non-human) have existed in West Greenland for at least the last few hundred years." - Greenland Institute of Natural Resources
  22. 1 2 3 4 Cuyler, et al. Status of two West Greenland Caribou populations 2005. Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine "Caribou (Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus) have no natural predators in WestGreenland, and none have existed for several hundred years (Dawes et al. 1986). When combined with their high fertility (Cuyler & Østegaard 2005) and recruitment (Cuyler et al. 2002, 2003, 2004), this would suggest that overabundance may be their greatest threat. Several boom and crash cycles of caribou in West Greenland have been noted since the 1700s (Vibe 1967, Meldgaard 1986), and recent population estimates are the highest ever documented, indicating that a new crash might be expected in the near future." - Technical Report No. 61, 2005. Greenland Institute of Natural Resources
  23. ↑ "In the winter, the fleshy pads on these toes grow longer and form a tough, hornlike rim. Caribou use these large, sharp-edged hooves to dig through the snow and uncover the lichens that sustain them in winter months. Biologists call this activity "cratering" because of the crater-like cavity the caribou's hooves leave in the snow." All About Caribou. Archived 2013-07-06 at the Wayback Machine - Project Caribou
  24. ↑ Image of reindeer cratering in snow
  25. ↑ Bror Saitton. Sammendrag av foredrag ved NORs 12. nordiske forskningskonferanse om rein og reindrift. - Nordic Council for Reindeer Husbandry Research (NOR)
  26. ↑ Overpopulation of reindeer in Greenland, 2005. - UPI, Dec. 9, 2005. PhysOrg.com
  27. 1 2 Reindeer hunting in Greenland. - PITU, no. 1, September 2002, pp. 15-16. Grønlands Naturinstitut (Nature Institute of Greenland).
  28. ↑ Interesting demo programs for estimating populations. Porcupine Caribou Population Model: Demo Versions. Archived 2007-05-01 at the Wayback Machine - Taiga Net, operated by the Arctic Borderlands Ecological Knowledge Society
  29. ↑ Baldursson S. Living Terrestrial Resources of the Arctic and Their Use. Archived 2007-10-07 at the Wayback Machine - Snorri Baldursson, Assistant Director General, Icelandic Institute of Natural History, University of the Arctic
  30. 1 2 Grønlandske fugle, havpattedyr og landpattedyr - en status over vigtige ressourcer Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine 1. oktober 1998. Teknisk rapport nr. 16, oktober 1998. Pinngortitaleriffik, Grønlands Naturinstitut
  31. ↑ The propagation of reindeer in Greenland. - Greenland Tourism and Business Council
  32. ↑ Identity card for Rangifer (Reindeer/Caribou). One species, 9 subspecies (three of which are in Greenland).
  33. ↑ Jerry McCarthy. Greenlandic word list. Reindeer are called tuttu (pl tuttut) by Greenland Inuit.
  34. ↑ Dawes, Elander, Ericson The Wolf (Canis lupus) in Greenland: A Historical Review and Present Status. Peter R. Dawes, Magnus Elander and Mats Ericson. Arctic, vol. 39, no. 2 (June 1986) p. 119-132
  35. ↑ Attack reindeer loses antlers. BBC News , 29 September 2002
  36. ↑ Jeremy Schmidt. Reindeer round-up - life of nomads who herd reindeer in Mongolia. - Ranger Rick, March, 1995
  37. ↑ Svalbard part 14
    Images and descriptions of curious wild reindeer
  38. ↑ "A yearling, or one-year-old, in the fall still has a rather small body compared to the adults and can be exceptionally curious." Porcupine Caribou Teachers' Manual Archived 2007-09-28 at the Wayback Machine , Unit 1: Awareness and Appreciation
  39. ↑ Image of a curious (tame) reindeer calf
  40. ↑ The Greenlandic reindeer. - Greenland Tourism and Business Council
  41. ↑ "Sight and sound are less important senses for caribou when assessing danger. Sometimes caribou appear not to be disturbed by people who are standing still. However, caribou are very good at detecting movement, even in poor light...Caribou are more curious than other North American deer species. If they haven't been able to verify something as having the scent of danger, they will often move closer to investigate it." All About Caribou. Archived 2013-07-06 at the Wayback Machine - Project Caribou
  42. ↑ Fakta om Grønland (facts about Greenland) Erhverv og næringsliv: Fiskeri, fangst og jagt. Archived 2003-06-11 at the Wayback Machine - Nordens Institut i Grønland
  43. ↑ Images from Itinnera: Renavlsstation nær bygden Kapisillit Archived 2007-03-03 at the Wayback Machine - Arktiske Billeder: Siulleq
  44. ↑ Ole Holbech. Itinnera images, 1976
  45. ↑ Jepsen B.I.; Siegismund H.R.; Fredholm M. Population genetics of the native caribou (Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus) and the semi-domestic reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) in Southwestern Greenland: Evidence of introgression. - Conservation Genetics, Volume 3, Number 4, 2002, pp. 401-409(9)
  46. ↑ Greffard MC. Peary Caribou (Rangifer tarandus pearyi) Archived 2007-05-10 at the Wayback Machine - McGill University, December 2000
  47. 1 2 Lars Bjørknæs. Grønlands lovsamling 2006. Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine - Hjemmestyrets bekendtgørelse nr. 18 af 18. juli 1995 om fredning af og jagt på rensdyr.
  48. ↑ Rensdyrjagt fra snescooter er forbudt. Kalaallit Nunaata Radioa, Greenland National Broadcasting Company, 11. February 2007
  49. ↑ Forlængelse af jagtperiode
  50. ↑ Willy Zimmer. The tough stuff. - Casper Star-Tribune, September 23, 2004, Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation
  51. ↑ Marty Prokop. How to Field Dress a Deer
  52. ↑ E. Dan Klepper. Hang'em High. - Texas Parks and Wildlife Magazine, November 2005
  53. ↑ Meat for transport
    Carrying meat
    Images showing transportation of meat Archived 2007-10-13 at the Wayback Machine
  54. ↑ Colin Fletcher, in The Complete Walker
  55. ↑ On October 11, 2015, the magnetic declination between the North Pole and Nuuk was "27° 49' W ± 0° 33' changing by 0° 22' E per year", calculated with NOAA's Magnetic Field Calculators, National Geophysical Data Center.

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The culture of Greenland has much in common with Greenlandic Inuit tradition, as the majority of people are descended from Inuit. Many people still go ice fishing and there are annual dog-sled races in which everyone with a team participates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Migratory woodland caribou</span> Subspecies of deer

The migratory woodland caribou refers to two herds of Rangifer tarandus that are included in the migratory woodland ecotype of the subspecies Rangifer tarandus caribou or woodland caribou that live in Nunavik, Quebec, and Labrador: the Leaf River caribou herd (LRCH) and the George River caribou herd (GRCH) south of Ungava Bay. Rangifer tarandus caribou is further divided into three ecotypes: the migratory barren-ground ecotype, the mountain ecotype or woodland (montane) and the forest-dwelling ecotype. According to researchers, the "George River herd which morphologically and genetically belong to the woodland caribou subspecies, at one time represented the largest caribou herd in the world and migrating thousands of kilometers from boreal forest to open tundra, where most females calve within a three-week period. This behaviour is more like barren-ground caribou subspecies." They argued that "understanding ecotype in relation to existing ecological constraints and releases may be more important than the taxonomic relationships between populations." The migratory George River caribou herd travel thousands of kilometres moving from wintering grounds to calving grounds near the Inuit hamlet of Kangiqsualujjuaq, Nunavik. In Nunavik and Labrador, the caribou population varies considerably with their numbers peaking in the later decades of each of the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries. In 1984, about 10,000 caribou of the George River herd drowned during their bi-annual crossing of the Caniapiscau River during the James Bay Hydro Project flooding operation. The most recent decline at the turn of the 20th century caused much hardship for the Inuit and Cree communities of Nunavik, who hunt them for subsistence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peary caribou</span> Subspecies of deer

The Peary caribou is a subspecies of caribou found in the High Arctic islands of Nunavut and the Northwest Territories in Canada. They are the smallest of the North American caribou, with the females weighing an average of 60 kg (130 lb) and the males 110 kg (240 lb). In length the females average 1.4 m and the males 1.7 m.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Barren-ground caribou</span> Subspecies of deer

The barren-ground caribou is a subspecies of the reindeer that is found in the Canadian territories of Nunavut and the Northwest Territories, in northern Alaska and in south-western Greenland. It includes the Porcupine caribou of Yukon and Alaska. The barren-ground caribou is a medium-sized caribou, smaller and lighter-colored than the boreal woodland caribou, with the females weighing around 90 kg (200 lb) and the males around 150 kg (330 lb). However, on some of the smaller islands, the average weight may be less. The large migratory herds of barren-ground caribou take their names from the traditional calving grounds, such as the Ahiak herd, the Baffin Island herds, the Bathurst herd, the Beverly herd, the Bluenose East herd, the Bluenose West herd, the Porcupine herd and the Qamanirjuaq herd.

Although the bulk of its area is covered by ice caps inhospitable to most forms of life, Greenland's terrain and waters support a wide variety of plant and animal species. The northeastern part of the island is the world's largest national park. The flora and fauna of Greenland are strongly susceptible to changes associated with climate change.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Inuit cuisine</span> Culinary traditions of the Inuit

Historically, Inuit cuisine, which is taken here to include Greenlandic, Yupʼik and Aleut cuisine, consisted of a diet of animal source foods that were fished, hunted, and gathered locally.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greenlandic cuisine</span> Culinary traditions of Greenland

Greenlandic cuisine is traditionally based on meat from marine mammals, birds, and fish, and normally contains high levels of protein. Since colonization and the arrival of international trade, the cuisine has been increasingly influenced by Danish, British, American and Canadian cuisine. During the summer when the weather is milder, meals are often eaten outdoors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Finnish forest reindeer</span> Subspecies of deer

The Finnish forest reindeer(Rangifer tarandus fennicus, also known as Eurasian or European forest reindeer is a rare subspecies of the reindeer native to Finland and northwestern Russia. They are found primarily in Russian Karelia and the provinces of North Karelia, Savonia and Kainuu in Finland, though some range into central south Finland. They are distinct from the semi-domesticated mountain reindeer in their larger size, longer legs and preference for dense boreal forest habitat, where they are rarely seen by humans, over the open tundra. The Finnish herd migrates seasonally back and forth across the long Russo-Finnish border.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greenlandic Inuit</span> Ethnic group indigenous to Greenland

The Greenlandic Inuit are the indigenous and most populous ethnic group in Greenland. Most speak Greenlandic and consider themselves ethnically Greenlandic. People of Greenland are both citizens of Denmark and citizens of the European Union.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indigenous peoples of the Subarctic</span> Grouping of indigenous peoples which inhabit the sub-Arctic region

Indigenous peoples of the Subarctic are the aboriginal peoples who live in the Subarctic regions of the Americas, Asia and Europe, located south of the true Arctic at about 50°N to 70°N latitude. This region includes the interior of Alaska, the Western Subarctic or western Canadian Shield and Mackenzie River drainage area, the Eastern Subarctic or Eastern Canadian Shield, and most of Fennoscandia, Northwestern Russia and Siberia. Peoples of subarctic Siberia and Greenland are included in the subarctic; however, Greenlandic Inuit are usually classified as Indigenous peoples of the Arctic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Svalbard reindeer</span> Species of deer

The Svalbard reindeer is a small subspecies or species of reindeer found on the Svalbard archipelago of Norway. Males average 65–90 kg (143–198 lb) in weight, females 53–70 kg (117–154 lb), while for other reindeer generally body mass is 159–182 kg (351–401 lb) for males and 80–120 kg (180–260 lb) for females.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Boreal woodland caribou</span> Subspecies of caribou or reindeer in North America

The boreal woodland caribou, also known as Eastern woodland caribou, boreal forest caribou and forest-dwelling caribou, is a North American subspecies of reindeer found primarily in Canada with small populations in the United States. Unlike the Porcupine caribou and barren-ground caribou, boreal woodland caribou are primarily sedentary.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dolphin-Union caribou</span> Migratory population of caribou

Dolphin and Union Caribou, Dolphin and Union caribou herd, Dolphin-Union, locally known as Island Caribou, are a migratory population of barren-ground caribou, Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus, that occupy Victoria Island in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and the nearby mainland. They are endemic to Canada. They migrate across the Dolphin and Union Strait from their summer grazing on Victoria Island to their winter grazing area on the Nunavut-Northwest Territories mainland in Canada. It is unusual for North American caribou to seasonally cross sea ice and the only other caribou to do so are the Peary caribou who are smaller in size and population. They were listed as Endangered by Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) since November 2017.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mountain reindeer</span> Subspecies of deer

The mountain reindeer, also called the Norwegian reindeer, northern reindeer, common reindeer or mountain caribou, is a mid-sized to large subspecies of the reindeer that is native to the western Scandinavian Peninsula, particularly Norway. In Norway, it is called fjellrein, villrein or tundra-rein.

The Arctic reindeer, properly known as the East Greenland caribou, was a subspecies of the reindeer that once lived in eastern Greenland. It has been extinct since 1900.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yupʼik cuisine</span> Culinary traditions of Yupik people

Yup'ik cuisine refers to the Inuit and Yup'ik style traditional subsistence food and cuisine of the Yup'ik people from the western and southwestern Alaska. Also known as Cup'ik cuisine for the Chevak Cup'ik dialect speaking Eskimos of Chevak and Cup'ig cuisine for the Nunivak Cup'ig dialect speaking Eskimos of Nunivak Island. This cuisine is traditionally based on meat from fish, birds, sea and land mammals, and normally contains high levels of protein. Subsistence foods are generally considered by many to be nutritionally superior superfoods. Yup’ik diet is different from Alaskan Inupiat, Canadian Inuit, and Greenlandic diets. Fish as food are primary food for Yup'ik Eskimos. Both food and fish called neqa in Yup'ik. Food preparation techniques are fermentation and cooking, also uncooked raw. Cooking methods are baking, roasting, barbecuing, frying, smoking, boiling, and steaming. Food preservation methods are mostly drying and less often frozen. Dried fish is usually eaten with seal oil. The ulu or fan-shaped knife is used for cutting up fish, meat, food, and such.

Caribou herds in Canada are discrete populations of seven subspecies that are represented in Canada. Caribou can be found from the High Arctic region south to the boreal forest and Rocky Mountains and from the east to the west coasts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reindeer distribution</span> Reindeer distribution around the world

The reindeer is a widespread and numerous species in the northern Holarctic, being present in both tundra and taiga. Originally, the reindeer was found in Scandinavia, eastern Europe, Russia, Mongolia, and northern China north of the 50th latitude. In North America, it was found in Canada, Alaska, and the northern contiguous USA from Washington to Maine. In the 19th century, it was apparently still present in southern Idaho. It also occurred naturally on Sakhalin, Greenland, and probably even in historical times in Ireland.

References

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