Hebrew punctuation

Last updated

Hebrew punctuation
Hebrew-specific marksorthographically similar marks
maqaf ־- hyphen
geresh ֜֝׳' apostrophe
gershayim ֞״" quotation mark
meteg ֽ  , comma
inverted nun ׆[ bracket
cantillation
cantillation
Sof passuk ׃  paseq ׀
etnakhta/atnakh ֑  segol ֒
shalshelet ֓  zaqef qaton ֔
zaqef gadol ֕  tifcha/tarkha ֖
rivia/ravia’ ֗  zarqa ֘
pashta ֙  yetiv ֚
tevir ֛  geresh/gerish ֜
geresh muqdam  [ de ]֝  gershayim/shenei gerishin ֞
karnei pharah ֟  telisha gedola/talsha ֠
pazer (gadol) ֡  atnah hafukh  [ de ]֢
munakh/shofar holekh ֣  mahapakh/shofar mehupakh ֤
merkha/ma’arikh ֥  merkha kefula/terei ta’amei ֦
darga ֧  qadma ֨
telisha qetana/tarsa ֩  yerah ben yomo ֪
ole ֫  illuy ֬
dehi  [ de ]֭  zinor ֮


Hebrew punctuation is similar to that of English and other Western languages, Modern Hebrew having imported additional punctuation marks from these languages in order to avoid the ambiguities sometimes occasioned by the relative lack of such symbols in Biblical Hebrew.

Contents

Punctuation

Quotation marks

Example
StandardAlternate
שָׁלוֹםשָׁלוֹם
Old style Hebrew quotation marks, from a 1923 translation of Robinson Crusoe OldHebrewQuotationStyle from1923 translation of RobinsonCrusoe.png
Old style Hebrew quotation marks, from a 1923 translation of Robinson Crusoe

With most printed Hebrew texts from the early 1970s and before, opening quotation marks are low (as in German), and closing ones are high, often going above the letters themselves (as opposed to the gershayim, which is level with the top of letters). An example of this system is שָׁלוֹם.

However, this distinction in Hebrew between opening and closing quotation marks has mostly disappeared, and today, quotations are most often punctuated as they are in English (such as שָׁלוֹם), with both quotation marks high. This is due to the advent of the Hebrew keyboard layout, which lacks the opening quotation mark , as well as to the lack in Hebrew of “smart quotes” in certain word processing programs.

In addition, the quotation mark is often used for the similar looking but different gershayim mark ״, as that too is absent from the Hebrew keyboard.

StandardAlternativeNames
"…""…"merkhaʾotמֵרְכָאוֹת (plural of merkhaמֵרְכָא); a similar punctuation mark unique to Hebrew is called gershayimגרשיים

Period, question mark, exclamation mark, comma

Periods (full stops), question marks, exclamation marks, and commas are used as in English.

A Hebrew period in a traditional serif face usually looks like a tiny tilted square (a diamond; ◊). This is also true for the dot part of the question mark, and exclamation mark.

In Arabic, which is also written from right to left, the question mark ؟ is mirrored right-to-left from the Latin question mark. (Some browsers may display the character in the previous sentence as a forward question mark due to font or text directionality issues.) Hebrew is also written right-to-left, but uses a question mark that appears on the page in the same orientation as Latin ?. [1] Note that Hebrew commas are not mirrored - although that was once suggested (together with mirrored semi-colons, 'capital' letters, etc.) by a 19th century British minister called William Withers Ewbank. [2] [3]

Colon and sof pasuq

Stemming from Biblical Hebrew, a sof pasuq ׃ is the equivalent of a period, and is used in some writings such as prayer books. Since a sof pasuq is absent from the Hebrew keyboard layout, and looks very similar to the colon :, a colon is often substituted for it.

GlyphUnicodeName
׃U+05C3HEBREW PUNCTUATION SOF PASUQ
 :U+003ACOLON

Vertical bar and paseq

Example
Standard
אֱלֹהִים׀
In the image above, the paseq can be seen on the last occurrence of the word
Aelohiym Crop of Hebrew manuscript meant to illustrate Hebrew punctuation paseq.jpg
In the image above, the paseq can be seen on the last occurrence of the word אֱלֹהִים

The paseq (פָּסֵק) ׀ originates from Biblical Hebrew. As it is not on a standard Hebrew keyboard, a vertical bar | is often used instead. However, it is seldom if ever used in modern Israeli Hebrew, and is not mentioned on the Academy of the Hebrew Language's guide to modern Hebrew punctuation. [4] The height of the paseq depends on the font, but it is generally the same as the letter א. [5]

Like much Biblical Hebrew punctuation, the meaning of the paseq is not known, although a number of hypotheses exist. The word itself means "separator", but this name was a medieval innovation by later Jews; the root פּסק does not exist in the Biblical Hebrew canon. [5] James Kennedy, an English hebraist, wrote a book about the paseq in which he hypothesized that it was an ancient mark serving the same purpose as the modern word sic (in non-Latin texts). [5] The Westminster Leningrad Codex contains over 500 paseqs; William Wickes, an influential scholar in this area, divide them into nine classes; [6] Wilhelm Gesenius, drawing on Wickes, divided them into five: [7]

An example may be found in Genesis 1:5 in the Westminster Leningrad Codex and many other manuscripts:

וַיִּקְרָ֨א אֱלֹהִ֤ים׀ לָאוֹר֙ י֔וֹם וְלַחֹ֖שֶׁךְ קָ֣רָא לָ֑יְלָה וַֽיְהִי־עֶ֥רֶב וַֽיְהִי־בֹ֖קֶר י֥וֹם אֶחָֽד׃ פ

GlyphUnicodeName
׀U+05C0HEBREW PUNCTUATION PASEQ
|U+007CVERTICAL LINE

Hyphen and maqaf

Example
Hebrew maqafStandard English hyphen
עַל־יְדֵי עַל‑יְדֵי
Notice how the maqaf aligns with the top horizontal strokes whereas the standard English hyphen is in the middle of the letters.

The maqaf (מַקָּף) ־ is the Hebrew hyphen -, and has virtually the same purpose for connecting two words as in English. It is different from the hyphen in its positioning (a hyphen is in the middle in terms of height, the maqaf is at the top) and it has a biblical origin, [8] unlike many other Modern Hebrew punctuation symbols, which have simply been imported from European languages.

The original purpose of the maqaf was to show that two words should be considered one for the purpose of dagesh placement, vowels, stress (ṭaʿam, טַעַם), and cantillation. This use continues into the present beyond reprintings of Biblical texts; [4] for example, the sheet music for modern Hebrew songs, such as Purim , are normally printed with them. [9] The maqaf is well-used in Hebrew typography; most books and newspapers use it and have the hyphens higher than one would find in English.[ citation needed ] In typed documents, however, it is frequently not used because before the 2010s, it was absent from most keyboards or cumbersome to type. As a consequence, a standard English hyphen - is most often used in online writings. This situation can be compared to that of users writing in Latin alphabets using the easily available hyphen-minus - over hyphen , minus , en dash , and em dash . As of the 2010's, it is possible to insert the maqaf symbol using most common computer, and mobile phone operating systems.

GlyphUnicodeName
־U+05beHEBREW PUNCTUATION MAQAF
-U+002dHYPHEN-MINUS

Brackets/parentheses

Brackets or parentheses, ( and ) are the same in Hebrew as in English. Since Hebrew is written from right to left, ) becomes an opening bracket, and ( a closing bracket, the opposite from English, which is written left to right.

Israeli currency

Example
With shekel signWith abbreviation
Israeli new shekel
₪12,00012,000ש״ח
Israeli pound
I£12,00012,000ל״י

The shekel sign () is the currency sign for the Israeli currency (the Israeli new shekel), in the way $, £, and exist for other currencies. The shekel sign, like the dollar sign $, is usually placed to the left of the number (so ₪12,000, rather than 12,000₪), but since Hebrew is written from right to left, the symbol is actually written after the number. It is either not separated from the preceding number, or is separated only by a thin space.

Unlike the dollar sign, the new shekel sign is not used that often when handwriting monetary amounts, and is generally replaced by the abbreviation ש״ח (standing for sheqel ẖadash, lit. "new shekel"). The new shekel sign can be typed on desktop Linux and Windows 8 and higher systems using the combination AltGr-4 according to the SI 1452 standard.

The short-lived Israeli old shekel, on the other hand, which symbol was Old Sheqel sign.svg , [note 1] is rarely referred to in Israeli texts; both due to its lifespan of only five years and the fact that due to hyperinflation it lost value daily, so that referring to a value in Israeli old shekels, even in retrospective writing, is essentially meaningless without knowing the exact time the figure was quoted. [10] As prices changed so rapidly, advertising of the time predominately used dollars; [11] when the shekel was referred to at all, it was with the letter S or its full Hebrew name—שֶׁקֶל; although certain banks, such as Bank Leumi, used the letter ש to refer to it on checks, as well as the Latin letters "I.S." [12]

The Israeli pound was the Israeli Currency until 1980. Its sign is I£, and its abbreviation is ל״י. [12]

Geresh and gershayim

Example
Geresh Apostrophe used as a geresh
צ׳ארלסצ'ארלס
Gershayim Quotation marks used as gershayim
צה״לצה"ל

The geresh ׳, is the Hebrew equivalent of a period in abbreviations (e.g. abbrev.), in addition to being attached to Hebrew letters to indicate sounds like soft g [ ] and ch [ ] in foreign names such as Charles ( צ׳ארלס ) and Jake (ג׳ייק). The gershayim ״, is a Hebrew symbol indicating that a sequence of characters is an acronym, and is placed before the last character of the word. Owing to a Hebrew keyboard's having neither a geresh nor gershayim, they are usually replaced online with, respectively, the visually similar apostrophe ' and quotation mark ". The quotation mark and apostrophe are higher than the geresh and gershayim: where the latter are placed level with the top of Hebrew letters, the apostrophe and quotation marks are above them.

Some Hebrew-specific fonts (fonts designed primarily for Hebrew letters), such as David, Narkisim and FrankRuehl, do not feature the apostrophe and quotation marks as such but use the geresh and gershayim to substitute for them.

GlyphUnicodeName
׳U+05f3HEBREW PUNCTUATION GERESH
״U+05f4HEBREW PUNCTUATION GERSHAYIM
'U+0027APOSTROPHE
"U+0022QUOTATION MARK

Mathematics

Mathematical expressions are written in Hebrew using the same symbols as in English, including Western numerals, which are written left to right. The only variant that exists is an alternative plus sign, which is a plus sign which looks like an inverted capital T. Unicode has this symbol at position U+FB29 "Hebrew letter alternative plus sign" (﬩). [13] The reason for this practice is that it avoids the writing of a symbol "+" that looks like a Christian cross. [14] [15]

Examples of mathematical expressions written in Hebrew
General example
With alternative plus sign
6 + [(1 × 2) ÷ 2] = 76 ﬩ [(1 × 2) ÷ 2] = 7
Mathematical expressions in Hebrew are nearly the same as in English

Reversed nun

'Examples
Letter nun.png Inverted letter nun 1.png
Ordinary letter nun
Reversed nun - vertical flip
Inverted letter nun 2.png Inverted letter nun 3.png
Reversed nun - horizontal flip
Reversed nun - Z-shape

Reversed nun (also called inverted nun, nun hafukha, or nun menuzzeret) is a rare character found in two Biblical Hebrew texts. [16] Although in Judaic literature it is known as nun hafukha ("reversed nun "), it does not function as any sort of letter in the text. [16] It is not part of a word, and it is not read aloud in any way. It is simply a mark that is written, and is therefore a punctuation mark, not a letter. Also, it is surrounded by space. [16]

While it depends on the particular manuscript or printed edition, it is found in nine places: twice in the Book of Numbers (prior to and after Numbers 10:34-36), and seven times in Psalm 107. [16] It is uncertain today what it was intended to signify. [16]

In many manuscripts, it does not even resemble a transformed nun at all, and when it does, it sometimes appears reversed (as mentioned above), sometimes inverted, and sometimes turned through 180°. [16] Other times it appears to look like the letter Z. [16]

GlyphUnicodeName
׆U+05C6HEBREW PUNCTUATION NUN HAFUKHA

Hebrew points (vowels)

Example
With vowel pointsWithout vowel points
עַל־יְדֵיעל־ידי
יִשְׂרָאֵלישראל

These signs (points, neqqudot ) indicate voweling or some other aspects of the pronunciation of a letter or word. While in Modern Hebrew they are not generally used outside poetry and children's books, a vowel point or other diacritic is occasionally added to resolve ambiguity.

One of these neqqudot, the rafe , is no longer used in Hebrew, even though it is routinely used in Yiddish spelling (as defined by YIVO).

GlyphUnicodeName
ְ U+05B0 SHEVA
ֱ U+05B1 HATEF SEGOL
ֲ U+05B2 HATEF PATAH
ֳ U+05B3 HATEF QAMATS
ִ U+05B4 HIRIQ
ֵ U+05B5 TSERE
ֶ U+05B6 SEGOL
ַ U+05B7 PATAH
ָ U+05B8 QAMATS
ֹ U+05B9 HOLAM (HASER)
ֻ U+05BB QUBUTS
ּ U+05BC DAGESH, MAPIQ, OR SHURUQ
ֽ U+05BD METEG
ֿ U+05BF RAFE
ׁ U+05C1 SHIN DOT
ׂ U+05C2 SIN DOT
ׄ U+05C4MARK UPPER DOT
ׅ U+05C5MARK LOWER DOT

Hebrew cantillation marks

Example (Genesis 1:1-5)
With Vowel Points and Cantillation Marks
בְּרֵאשִׁ֖ית בָּרָ֣א אֱלֹהִ֑ים אֵ֥ת הַשָּׁמַ֖יִם וְאֵ֥ת הָאָֽרֶץ׃ וְהָאָ֗רֶץ הָיְתָ֥ה תֹ֙הוּ֙ וָבֹ֔הוּ וְחֹ֖שֶׁךְ עַל־פְּנֵ֣י תְה֑וֹם וְר֣וּחַ אֱלֹהִ֔ים מְרַחֶ֖פֶת עַל־פְּנֵ֥י הַמָּֽיִם׃ וַיֹּ֥אמֶר אֱלֹהִ֖ים יְהִ֣י א֑וֹר וַֽיְהִי־אֽוֹר׃ וַיַּ֧רְא אֱלֹהִ֛ים אֶת־הָא֖וֹר כִּי־ט֑וֹב וַיַּבְדֵּ֣ל אֱלֹהִ֔ים בֵּ֥ין הָא֖וֹר וּבֵ֥ין הַחֹֽשֶׁךְ׃ וַיִּקְרָ֨א אֱלֹהִ֤ים׀ לָאוֹר֙ י֔וֹם וְלַחֹ֖שֶׁךְ קָ֣רָא לָ֑יְלָה וַֽיְהִי־עֶ֥רֶב וַֽיְהִי־בֹ֖קֶר י֥וֹם אֶחָֽד׃
Just Cantillation Marks
(For Demonstration)
בראש֖ית בר֣א אלה֑ים א֥ת השמ֖ים וא֥ת האֽרץ׃ והא֗רץ הית֥ה ת֙הו֙ וב֔הו וח֖שך על־פנ֣י תה֑ום ור֣וח אלה֔ים מרח֖פת על־פנ֥י המֽים׃ וי֥אמר אלה֖ים יה֣י א֑ור וֽיהי־אֽור׃ וי֧רא אלה֛ים את־הא֖ור כי־ט֑וב ויבד֣ל אלה֔ים ב֥ין הא֖ור וב֥ין החֽשך׃ ויקר֨א אלה֤ים׀ לאור֙ י֔ום ולח֖שך ק֣רא ל֑ילה וֽיהי־ע֥רב וֽיהי־ב֖קר י֥ום אחֽד׃
No Cantillation or Vowel Points
בראשית ברא אלהים את השמים ואת הארץ׃ והארץ היתה תהו ובהו וחשך על־פני תהום ורוח אלהים מרחפת על־פני המים׃ ויאמר אלהים יהי אור ויהי־אור׃ וירא אלהים את־האור כי־טוב ויבדל אלהים בין האור ובין החשך׃ ויקרא אלהים׀ לאור יום ולחשך קרא לילה ויהי־ערב ויהי־בקר יום אחד׃

The cantillation marks (Hebrew : טעמיםteʿamim) have a very specialized use. They are only found in printed Hebrew texts of Tanakh to be used as a guide for chanting the text, either from the printed text or, in the case of the public reading of the Torah, to be memorized along with vowel marks as the Sefer Torah includes only the letters of the text without cantillation or vowel marks. Outside the Tanakh, the cantillation marks are not used in modern spoken or written Hebrew at all. The cantillation marks provide a structure to sentences of Tanakh similar to that provided by punctuation marks.

cantillation
cantillation
Sof passuk ׃  paseq ׀
etnakhta/atnakh ֑  segol ֒
shalshelet ֓  zaqef qaton ֔
zaqef gadol ֕  tifcha/tarkha ֖
rivia/ravia’ ֗  zarqa ֘
pashta ֙  yetiv ֚
tevir ֛  geresh/gerish ֜
geresh muqdam  [ de ]֝  gershayim/shenei gerishin ֞
karnei pharah ֟  telisha gedola/talsha ֠
pazer (gadol) ֡  atnah hafukh  [ de ]֢
munakh/shofar holekh ֣  mahapakh/shofar mehupakh ֤
merkha/ma’arikh ֥  merkha kefula/terei ta’amei ֦
darga ֧  qadma ֨
telisha qetana/tarsa ֩  yerah ben yomo ֪
ole ֫  illuy ֬
dehi  [ de ]֭  zinor ֮

See also

Notes

  1. As of April 2019, this symbol does not exist in Unicode.

Related Research Articles

The Hebrew alphabet, known variously by scholars as the Ktav Ashuri, Jewish script, square script and block script, is traditionally an abjad script used in the writing of the Hebrew language and other Jewish languages, most notably Yiddish, Ladino, Judeo-Arabic, and Judeo-Persian. In modern Hebrew, vowels are increasingly introduced. It is also used informally in Israel to write Levantine Arabic, especially among Druze. It is an offshoot of the Imperial Aramaic alphabet, which flourished during the Achaemenid Empire and which itself derives from the Phoenician alphabet.

The apostrophe is a punctuation mark, and sometimes a diacritical mark, in languages that use the Latin alphabet and some other alphabets. In English, the apostrophe is used for three basic purposes:

The ' character is represented by 39 in ASCII and U+0027'APOSTROPHE in Unicode. It is used as:

Hebrew cantillation, trope, trop, or te'amim is the manner of chanting ritual readings from the Hebrew Bible in synagogue services. The chants are written and notated in accordance with the special signs or marks printed in the Masoretic Text of the Bible, to complement the letters and vowel points.

In Hebrew orthography, niqqud or nikud is a system of diacritical signs used to represent vowels or distinguish between alternative pronunciations of letters of the Hebrew alphabet. Several such diacritical systems were developed in the Early Middle Ages. The most widespread system, and the only one still used to a significant degree today, was created by the Masoretes of Tiberias in the second half of the first millennium AD in the Land of Israel. Text written with niqqud is called ktiv menuqad.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tiberian vocalization</span> System of diacritics for the Hebrew Bible

The Tiberian vocalization, Tiberian pointing, or Tiberian niqqud is a system of diacritics (niqqud) devised by the Masoretes of Tiberias to add to the consonantal text of the Hebrew Bible to produce the Masoretic Text. The system soon became used to vocalize other Hebrew texts as well.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Romanization of Hebrew</span> Transcription of Hebrew into the Latin alphabet

The Hebrew language uses the Hebrew alphabet with optional vowel diacritics. The romanization of Hebrew is the use of the Latin alphabet to transliterate Hebrew words.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yiddish orthography</span> How Yiddish is spelled and written

Yiddish orthography is the writing system used for the Yiddish language. It includes Yiddish spelling rules and the Hebrew script, which is used as the basis of a full vocalic alphabet. Letters that are silent or represent glottal stops in the Hebrew language are used as vowels in Yiddish. Other letters that can serve as both vowels and consonants are either read as appropriate to the context in which they appear, or are differentiated by diacritical marks derived from Hebrew nikkud, commonly referred to as "nekudot" or "pintalach". Additional phonetic distinctions between letters that share the same base character are also indicated by either pointing or adjacent placement of otherwise silent base characters. Several Yiddish points are not commonly used in any latter-day Hebrew context; others are used in a manner that is specific to Yiddish orthography. There is significant variation in the way this is applied in literary practice. There are also several differing approaches to the disambiguation of characters that can be used as either vowels or consonants.

The orthography of the Greek language ultimately has its roots in the adoption of the Greek alphabet in the 9th century BC. Some time prior to that, one early form of Greek, Mycenaean, was written in Linear B, although there was a lapse of several centuries between the time Mycenaean stopped being written and the time when the Greek alphabet came into use.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hebrew keyboard</span> Keyboard layout

A Hebrew keyboard comes in two different keyboard layouts. Most Hebrew keyboards are bilingual, with Latin characters, usually in a US Qwerty layout. Trilingual keyboard options also exist, with the third script being Arabic or Russian, due to the sizable Arabic- and Russian-speaking populations in Israel.

Gershayim, also occasionally grashayim, can refer to either of two distinct typographical marks in the Hebrew language. The name literally means "double geresh".

Geresh is a sign in Hebrew writing. It has two meanings.

  1. An apostrophe-like sign placed after a letter:
  2. A note of cantillation in the reading of the Torah and other Biblical books, taking the form of a curved diagonal stroke placed above a letter.

The Unicode and HTML for the Hebrew alphabet are found in the following tables. The Unicode Hebrew block extends from U+0590 to U+05FF and from U+FB1D to U+FB4F. It includes letters, ligatures, combining diacritical marks and punctuation. The Numeric Character References are included for HTML. These can be used in many markup languages, and they are often used on web pages to create the Hebrew glyphs presentable by the majority of web browsers.

Kamatz or qamatz is a Hebrew niqqud (vowel) sign represented by two perpendicular lines  ָ ‎ ⟩ underneath a letter. In modern Hebrew, it usually indicates the phoneme which is the "a" sound in the word spa and is transliterated as a. In these cases, its sound is identical to the sound of pataḥ in modern Hebrew. In a minority of cases it indicates the phoneme, equal to the sound of ḥolam. In traditional Ashkenazi Hebrew pronunciation, qamatz is pronounced as the phoneme, which becomes in some contexts in southern Ashkenazi dialects.

Writing systems that use Chinese characters also include various punctuation marks, derived from both Chinese and Western sources. Historically, judou annotations were often used to indicate the boundaries of sentences and clauses in text. The use of punctuation in Written Chinese only became mandatory during the 20th century, due to Western influence. Unlike modern punctuation, judou marks were added by scholars for pedagogical purposes and were not viewed as integral to the text. Texts were therefore generally transmitted without judou. In most cases, this practice did not interfere with the interpretation of a text, although it occasionally resulted in ambiguity.

Hebrew orthography includes three types of diacritics:

Abbreviations are a common part of the Hebrew language, with many organizations, places, people and concepts known by their abbreviations.

Begadkefat is the phenomenon of lenition affecting the non-emphatic stop consonants of Biblical Hebrew and Aramaic when they are preceded by a vowel and not geminated. The name is also given to similar cases of spirantization of post-vocalic plosives in other languages; for instance, in the Berber language of Djerba. Celtic languages have a similar system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">English Braille</span> Tactile writing system for English

English Braille, also known as Grade 2 Braille, is the braille alphabet used for English. It consists of around 250 letters (phonograms), numerals, punctuation, formatting marks, contractions, and abbreviations (logograms). Some English Braille letters, such as ⟨ch⟩, correspond to more than one letter in print.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Meteg</span> Hebrew punctuation mark

Meteg is a punctuation mark used in Biblical Hebrew for stress marking. It is a vertical bar placed under the affected syllable.

References

  1. Truss, Lynne. Eats, Shoots & Leaves, 2003. p. 143. ISBN   1-59240-087-6.
  2. Ewbank, William Withers (October 4, 1841). HXYSARB The Book of Genesis, in the original Hebrew without points, but with Stops and Large Initial Letters (edited as an experiment). London: Duncan & Malcolm. Retrieved May 11, 2021.
  3. Macdowell, Mississippi Fred (October 14, 2010). "Hebrew made more European; an innovative punctuation scheme from 1841". On the Main Line. Retrieved May 11, 2021.
  4. 1 2 "כללי הפיסוק" [Common [Hebrew] punctuation]. Academy of the Hebrew Language (in Hebrew). Retrieved April 23, 2019. הערה ב: המקף הבא במקרא שימושו אחר, והוא שייך בעיקרו לטעמי המקרא: הוא מורה על צירוף שתי מילים או יותר הנקראות בטעם אחד. (Maqaf in the Bible has another use primarily associated with cantillation, it indicates that two or more words are to be pronounced in one breath.)
  5. 1 2 3 Kennedy, James (1903). The note-line in the Hebrew scriptures commonly called Pāsēq, or Pesîq. Edinburgh T. & T. Clark.
  6. Wickes, William (1887). A treatise on the accentuation of the twenty-one so-called prose books of the Old Testament. Robarts - University of Toronto. Oxford : Clarendon Press.
  7. Gesenius, Wilhelm; Kautzsch, E. (Emil); Cowley, A. E. (Arthur Ernest) (1910). Gesenius' Hebrew grammar. Gerstein - University of Toronto. Oxford : Clarendon Press.
  8. Wikisource-logo.svg  Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar, §16
  9. Cohen-Zentner, Naomi (March 1, 2015). "Hag Purim – The story behind its melody". The Hebrew University of Jerusalem . Retrieved April 23, 2019.
  10. Schechter, Asher (February 24, 2012). "Requiem for the Shekel". Haaretz . Retrieved April 24, 2019.
  11. "The Rise & Fall of Israeli Inflation". Jewish Virtual Library . American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise. 2011. Retrieved April 24, 2019.
  12. 1 2 "גלגולו של סימן ₪ ||| סיפור בארבעה פרקים קצרים" [The transformation of the shekel sign ||| A story in four parts]. קווים ונקודות (in Hebrew). February 17, 2015. Retrieved April 24, 2019.
  13. "﬩ - U+0FB29 - decodeunicode.org". decodeunicode.org. Retrieved April 11, 2023.
  14. Kaufmann Kohler (1901–1906). "Cross". In Cyrus Adler; et al. (eds.). Jewish Encyclopedia.
  15. Christian-Jewish Dialogue: Theological Foundations By Peter von der Osten-Sacken (1986 – Fortress Press) ISBN   0-8006-0771-6 "In Israel the plus sign used in mathematics is represented by a horizontal stroke with a vertical hook instead of the sign otherwise used all over the world, because the latter is reminiscent of a cross." (Page 96)
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Universal Multiple-Octet Coded Character Set: International Organization for Standardization" (PDF). Retrieved April 11, 2023.