Honey possum

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Honey possum [1]
Tarsipes rostratus Gould 2.jpg
Illustration by Gould and Richter, 1863
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Infraclass: Marsupialia
Order: Diprotodontia
Suborder: Phalangeriformes
Superfamily: Petauroidea
Family: Tarsipedidae
Gervais & Verreaux, 1842
Genus: Tarsipes
Gervais & Verreaux, 1842
Species:
T. rostratus
Binomial name
Tarsipes rostratus
Gervais & Verreaux, 1842
Honey Possum area.png
Honey possum range
Synonyms
  • Tarsipes spencerae Ride, 1970
  • Tarsipes spenserae Gray, 1842

The honey possum or noolbenger (Tarsipes rostratus), is a tiny species of marsupial that feeds on the nectar and pollen of a diverse range of flowering plants. Found only in southwest Australia, it is an important pollinator for such plants as Banksia attenuata , Banksia coccinea and Adenanthos cuneatus . [3]

Contents

Taxonomy

The first description of the diprotodont species was published by Paul Gervais and Jules Verreaux on 3 March 1842, referring to a specimen collected by Verreaux. The lectotype nominated for this species, held in the collection at National Museum of Natural History, France, was collected the Swan River Colony. [1] [4] A description of a second species Tarsipes spenserae, [5] published five days later by John Edward Gray and current until the 1970s, was thought to have been published earlier by T. S. Palmer in 1904 [6] and displaced the usage of T. rostratus. A review by Mahoney in 1984 again reduced T. spenserae to a synonym for the species, as was the emendation to its spelling as spencerae cited by William Ride (1970) and others. [7] [8] [9] Gray's specimen was provided by George Grey to the British Museum of Natural History, the skin of a male also collected at King George Sound. [4] The author was aware of the description prepared by Gervais, who after examining his specimen suggested it represented a second species.

The population is the only known species in the genus Tarsipes, and assigned to a monotypic diprotodont family Tarsipedidae. [10] The name of the genus means "tarsier-foot", given for a resemblance to tarsier's simian-like feet and toes noted by the earliest descriptions. [11]

The poorly resolved phylogeny of ancestral marsupial relationships has presented this taxon, unique in many characteristics, in an arrangement of other higher classifications, including the separation as a superfamily Tarsipedoidea, later abandoned in favour grouping of South American and Australian marsupials as a monophyletic clade that ignores the modern geographic remoteness of these continent's fauna. [12]

The relationships of the monotypic family within the Diprotodontia order as a petauroid alliance may be summarised as,

The closest relationship to other taxa was theorised to be Dromiciops gliroides , another smaller marsupial that occurs in South America and is known as the extant member of a genus that is represented in the Gondwanan fossil record. This was supported by phylogenetic analysis, [9] but this is no longer believed to be true. [13]

At Grey's suggestion, the maiden name of his wife Eliza Lucy Spencer was assigned to the epithet. Eliza or Elizabeth was the daughter of the government resident at King George Sound, Richard Spencer, prompting the unacceptable correction by Ride in 1970.

The common names include those cited or coined by Gilbert, Gould and Ellis Troughton, honey and long-snouted phalanger, tait and noolbenger in the local languages, or the descriptive brown barred mouse. An ethnographic survey of Noongar words recorded for the species found three names were in use, and proposed that these be regularised for spelling and pronunciation as ngoolboongoor (ngool'bong'oor), djebin (dje'bin) and dat. [14] The term honey mouse was recorded by Troughton in 1922 as commonly used in the districts around King George Sound. [8]

Description

A tiny marsupial that climbs woody plants to feed on the pollen and nectar, the honey, of banksia and eucalypts. They resemble a small mouse or the arboreal possums of Australia, and are readily distinguished by the exceptionally long muzzle and three brown stripes from the head to the rump. The pelage is a cream colour below that merges to rufous at the flanks, the overall coloration of the upperparts is a mix of brown and grey hairs. A dark brown central stripe extends from the rump to a mid-point between the ears, this is a more distinct stripe than the two paler adjacent stripes. The length of the tail is from 70 to 100 millimetres (2.8 to 3.9 in), exceeding the combined body and head length of 65 to 85 mm (2.6 to 3.3 in), and has a prehensile ability that assists in climbing. The recorded weight range for the species is 5 to 10 grams (0.18 to 0.35 oz). [15] The number of teeth are fewer and most much smaller than is typical for marsupials, with the molars reduced to tiny cones. The dental formula of I2/1 C1/0 P1/0 M3/3 totals no more than 22 teeth. [11] The morphology of the elongated snout's jaws and dentition presents a number of unique characteristics suited to the specialisation as a palynivore and nectivore. Tarsipes tongue is extensible and the end covered in brush-like papillae, with the redundant action of the modified or reduced teeth being replaced by the interaction of the tongue, keel-like lower incisors and a fine combing surface at the palate. [16] [11]

The testes are very large in size, noted as proportionally the greatest for a mammal at 4.6 percent of the body weight. The sperm also has an exceptional length; its tail (flagellum) measurement of 360 micrometres also cited as the longest known. [17] Specialised characters of T. rostratus include visual acuity for detecting the bright yellow inflorescence of Banksia attenuata . [18]

They have a typical lifespan between one and two years. [19]

They have trichromat vision, similar to some other marsupials as well as primates but unlike most mammals which have dichromat vision. [20]

Behaviour

The honey possum is mainly nocturnal, but will come out to feed during daylight in cooler weather. Generally, though, it spends the days asleep in a shelter of convenience: a rock cranny, a tree cavity, the hollow inside of a grass tree, or an abandoned bird nest.[ citation needed ] When food is scarce, or in cold weather, it becomes torpid to conserve energy. In comparison to other marsupials of a similar size, T. rostratus has a high body temperature and metabolic rate that is termed euthermic. Lacking fat reserves, but able to reduce their body temperature, exposure to cooler temperatures or lack of food induces one of two states of torpor. One response is a shallow and brief period, similar to torpid dasyurids, where the body temperature is above 10–15 degrees Celsius, and another deeper state like the burramyids that lasts for multiple days and reduces their temperature to less than 10 °C (50 °F). [21]

The species is able to climb with the assistance of the prehensile tail and an opposable first toe at the long hindfoot that is able to grip like a monkey's paw. The bristle-like papillae at the upper surface of the tongue increase in length toward the tip, and this is used to gather the pollen and nectar by rapidly wiping it into the inflorescence. [3] Both its front and back feet are adept at grasping, enabling it to climb trees with ease, as well as traverse the undergrowth at speed. The honey possum can also use its prehensile tail (which is longer than its head and body combined) to grip, much like another arm. [19]

Radio-tracking has shown that males particularly are quite mobile, moving distances of up to 0.5 km in a night and use areas averaging 0.8 hectares. [22] Males seem to venture out in a larger range, and some evidence indicates greater distances covered; evidence of pollen found on an individual in a study area was from a banksia not found within three kilometres of the collection site. [9]

Illustration from Troughton's article "The Honey Mouse" (1922) Australian zoologist vol 3 p 152 illustration.png
Illustration from Troughton's article "The Honey Mouse" (1922)

The plant species that provide nectar and pollen to T. rostratus are primarily genera of Proteaceae, Banksia and Adenanthos , and Myrtaceae, eucalypts and Agonis , and those of Epacridaceae, shrubby heath plants, although it is also known to visit the inflorescence of Anigozanthos , the kangaroo paws, and the tall spikes of Xanthorrhoea , the grass-trees. [9] Study of the amount of nectar and pollen has concluded that a nine gram individual requires around seven millilitres of nectar and one gram of pollen each day to maintain an energetic balance. This amount of pollen provides sufficient nitrogen for the species high activity metabolism, and the additional nitrogen requirements of females during lactation is available in the pollen of Banksia species. The ingestion of excess water when feeding at wet flowers, a frequent circumstance in the high rainfall regions of its range, is able to be eliminated by kidneys that can process up to two times the animal's body weight in water. [23] Pollen grains are digested over the course of six hours, extracting almost all the nutrients they contain. [9]

Reproduction

Breeding depends on the availability of nectar and can occur at any time of the year. Females are promiscuous, mating with a large number of males and may simultaneously carry embryos from different progenitors. Competition has led to the males having very large testicles relative to their body weight, at a relative mass of 4.2% it is amongst the largest known for a mammal. Their sperm is the largest in the mammal world, measuring 365 micrometres. [17]

The development of blastocysts corresponds to day length, induced by a shorter photoperiod, but other reproductive processes are prompted by other factor, probably food availability. [24] Gestation lasts for 28 days, with two to four young being produced. At birth, they are the smallest of any mammal, weighing 0.005 g.[ citation needed ] Nurturing and development within the pouch lasts for about 60 days, after which they emerge covered in fur and with open eyes, weighing some 2.5 g (0.088 oz). As soon as they emerge, they are often left in a sheltered area (such as a hollow in a tree) while the mother searches for food for herself, but within days, they learn to grab hold of the mother's back and travel with her. However, their weight soon becomes too much, and they stop nursing at around 11 weeks, and start to make their own homes shortly thereafter. [19] As is common in marsupials, a second litter is often born when the pouch is vacated by the first, fertilised embryos being stopped from developing. [25]

Most of the time, honey possums stick to separate territories of about one hectare (2.5 acres), [26] outside of the breeding season. They live in small groups of no more than 10, which results in them engaging in combat with one another only rarely. During the breeding season, females move into smaller areas with their young, which they will defend fiercely, especially from any males. [19]

Distribution

Although restricted to a fairly small range in the southwest of Western Australia, it is locally common and does not seem to be threatened with extinction so long as its habitat of heath, shrubland, and woodland [19] remains intact and diverse. Records of locations held at the Western Australian Museum indicate they are more common in regions of high Proteaceae diversity, areas such as banksia woodlands where species can be found flowering at all times of the year.

Ecology

Tarsipe rostratus is a keystone species in the ecology of the coastal sands of Southwest Australia, complex assemblages of plants known as kwongan, and are likely to be the primary pollinator of woody shrubs such as banksia and Adenanthos. Their feeding activity involves visits to many individual plants and the head carries a small pollen load that can convey more effectively than the birds that visit the same flowers. The favoured species Banksia attenuata appears to be obliged to this animal as a pollination vector, and both species have evolved to suit their mutualistic interactions. [27]

The effect of fire frequency on the population was evaluated in a study over a twenty three-year period, giving indications of resilience of the species to the first fire in the area and a subsequent burn six years later. The effect of increased frequency and intensity of fire, due to global warming and prescribed burns can adversely affect the suitability of the local habitat. [28] The species is susceptible to the impact of Phytophthora cinnamomi , a soil borne fungal-like species that is associated with forest dieback in the eucalypt forests and banksia woodlands of the region. The flowers of the nine plant species most favoured by T. rostratus provide food throughout the year, and five of these are vulnerable to the withering condition caused by P. cinnamomi pathogen. [18]

Bright yellow inflorescence of Banksia attenuata, thought to be the favorite of the honey mouse Banksia attenuata gnangarra 04.jpg
Bright yellow inflorescence of Banksia attenuata, thought to be the favorite of the honey mouse

It is the only entirely nectarivorous mammal which is not a bat; [29] it has a long, pointed snout and a long, protrusile tongue with a brush tip that gathers pollen and nectar, like a honeyeater or a hummingbird. Floral diversity is particularly important for the honey possum, as it cannot survive without a year-round supply of nectar and, unlike nectarivorous birds, it cannot easily travel long distances in search of fresh supplies.

Natural history

An animal well known to the Noongar people of southwest, and incorporated into their culture, the name ngoolboongoor from the indigenous language has been proposed for modern usage as a common name, written as noolbenger. [9] [14] Honey possums continue to be an iconic animal to the people of the region, and was selected by Amok Island to feature in a large public art project on silos in the wheatbelt. [30] The first report of the species was compiled by John Gilbert, the careful and thorough field collector commissioned by Gould to travel to the new colony at the Swan River on the west coast of Australia. Gilbert obtained access to Noongar informants that provided him with the names and details of the animal's habits and, with some difficulty, four specimens for scientific examination. Both he and Gould recognised the unique characters of the unknown species. [9]

The next major field study was undertaken by the mammalogist Ellis Troughton at the suggestion of H. L. White, who provided an introduction to the professional collector F. Lawson Whitlock. Troughton's visit to King George Sound was guided by Whitlock to the source of a specimen he had sent to White, a man in the same region named David Morgan who accommodated the biologist while he searched extensively and unsuccessfully for further specimens. Troughton was eventually provided with a series of a dozen specimens when he was preparing to leave Albany port, a collection assembled over many years by the cats of Hugh Leishman at Nannarup. The collection of the Australian Museum was increased when Morgan continued to forward specimens to Troughton, firstly with two pregnant females that were also killed by a cat, and then with a report of living animals he was able to maintain in captivity for five to six weeks. Morgan reported that his cat would bring a mangled specimen on a daily basis for a period of time, and observed it seeking them in a flowering shrub at dusk, but thought their local appearance was seasonally related and became absent outside the breeding season. [8]

Closer study of the reproductive processes was allowed by the capture, extended observation and dissection of the species in University programs, the first success in captivity beginning in 1974. Examination of the reproductive strategies has allowed comparison to the other modern marsupial families, in particular the evolution of embryonic diapause. [31] The population structure and feeding habits of T. rostratus was poorly understood until a biological study at the Fitzgerald River National Park was completed in 1984. [9]

A diet consisting entirely of nectar is unusual for a terrestrial vertebrate species, usually birds and flying mammals, and specialisation to the niche provided by the success of plant families Proteaceae and Myrtaceae began around forty million years ago. [9]

Related Research Articles

<i>Banksia</i> Genus of flowering plants in the family Proteaceae

Banksia is a genus of around 170 species of flowering plants in the family Proteaceae. These Australian wildflowers and popular garden plants are easily recognised by their characteristic flower spikes, and woody fruiting "cones" and heads. Banksias range in size from prostrate woody shrubs to trees up to 30 metres (100 ft) tall. They are found in a wide variety of landscapes: sclerophyll forest, (occasionally) rainforest, shrubland, and some more arid landscapes, though not in Australia's deserts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phalangeriformes</span> Suborder of arboreal marsupials

Phalangeriformes is a paraphyletic suborder of about 70 species of small to medium-sized arboreal marsupials native to Australia, New Guinea, and Sulawesi. The species are commonly known as possums, gliders, and cuscus. The common name "possum" for various Phalangeriformes species derives from the creatures' resemblance to the opossums of the Americas. However, although opossums are also marsupials, Australasian possums are more closely related to other Australasian marsupials such as kangaroos.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Southwest Australia</span> Biogeographic region of Western Australia

Southwest Australia is a biogeographic region in Western Australia. It includes the Mediterranean-climate area of southwestern Australia, which is home to a diverse and distinctive flora and fauna.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tasmanian pygmy possum</span> Species of marsupial

The Tasmanian pygmy possum, also known as the little pygmy possum or tiny pygmy possum, is the world's smallest possum. It was first described by Oldfield Thomas in 1888, after he identified that a museum specimen labelled as an eastern pygmy possum in fact represented a species then unknown to science. The holotype resides in the Natural History Museum in London.

<i>Banksia ilicifolia</i> Tree in the family Proteaceae endemic to southwest Western Australia

Banksia ilicifolia, commonly known as holly-leaved banksia, is a tree in the family Proteaceae. Endemic to southwest Western Australia, it belongs to Banksia subg. Isostylis, a subgenus of three closely related Banksia species with inflorescences that are dome-shaped heads rather than characteristic Banksia flower spikes. It is generally a tree up to 10 metres (33 ft) tall with a columnar or irregular habit. Both the scientific and common names arise from the similarity of its foliage to that of the English holly Ilex aquifolium; the glossy green leaves generally have very prickly serrated margins, although some plants lack toothed leaves. The inflorescences are initially yellow but become red-tinged with maturity; this acts as a signal to alert birds that the flowers have opened and nectar is available.

<i>Banksia coccinea</i> Species of shrub or small tree

Banksia coccinea, commonly known as the scarlet banksia, waratah banksia or Albany banksia, is an erect shrub or small tree in the family Proteaceae. Its distribution in the wild is along the south west coast of Western Australia, from Denmark to the Stokes National Park, and north to the Stirling Range, growing on white or grey sand in shrubland, heath or open woodland. Reaching up to 8 m (26 ft) in height, it is a single-stemmed plant that has oblong leaves, which are 3–9 cm (1.2–3.5 in) long and 2–7 cm (0.8–2.8 in) wide. The prominent red and white flower spikes appear mainly in the spring. As they age they develop small follicles that store seeds until opened by fire. Though widely occurring, it is highly sensitive to dieback and large populations of plants have succumbed to the disease.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nectarivore</span> Animal in which nectar is a main source of nutrition in their diet

In zoology, a nectarivore is an animal which derives its energy and nutrient requirements from a diet consisting mainly or exclusively of the sugar-rich nectar produced by flowering plants.

<i>Banksia baueri</i> Species of shrub in the family Proteaceae native to Western Australia

Banksia baueri, commonly known as the woolly banksia, is a species of shrub that is endemic to the southwest of Western Australia. It has serrated leaves and a distinctively large and hairy looking inflorescence with cream, yellow or brown flowers, and hairy fruit.

<i>Banksia caleyi</i> Australian species of shrub, the red lantern banksia

Banksia caleyi, commonly known as Caley's banksia or red lantern banksia, is a species of woody shrub of the family Proteaceae native to Western Australia. It generally grows as a dense shrub up to 2 m (7 ft) tall, has serrated leaves and red, pendent (hanging) inflorescences which are generally hidden in the foliage. First described by Scottish naturalist Robert Brown in 1830, Banksia caleyi was named in honour of the English botanist George Caley. No subspecies are recognised. It is one of three or four related species with hanging inflorescences, which is an unusual feature within the genus.

<i>Banksia grossa</i> Shrub in the family Proteaceae endemic to Australia

Banksia grossa is a species of shrub in the family Proteaceae and is endemic to Southwest Australia. It is one of fourteen species of banksia of the series Abietinae, all of which bear predominantly cylindrical or oval inflorescences. Collected in 1965, it was first formally described in 1981 by Alex George. Its thick leaves and large seeds distinguish it from other members of the Abietinae, and are the basis of its species name.

<i>Banksia lemanniana</i> Shrub of the family Proteaceae native to Western Australia

Banksia lemanniana, the yellow lantern banksia or Lemann's banksia, is a species of flowering plant in the family Proteaceae, native to Western Australia. It generally grows as an open woody shrub or small tree to 5 m (16 ft) high, with stiff serrated leaves and unusual hanging inflorescences. Flowering occurs over summer, the greenish buds developing into oval flower spikes before turning grey and developing the characteristic large woody follicles. It occurs within and just east of the Fitzgerald River National Park on the southern coast of the state. B. lemanniana is killed by bushfire and regenerates from seed.

<i>Banksia nutans</i> Species of shrub in the family Proteaceae native to the south coast of Western Australia

Banksia nutans, commonly known as nodding banksia, is a species of shrub native to the south coast of Western Australia in the genus Banksia. Growing to a metre (3 ft) tall, it has pale blue-green fine-leaved foliage and unusual purple-brown inflorescences which hang upside down rather than grow upright like most other banksias.

<i>Banksia sphaerocarpa</i> Shrub or tree in the family Proteaceae widely distributed across the southwest of Western Australia

Banksia sphaerocarpa, commonly known as the fox banksia or round-fruit banksia, is a species of shrub or tree in the plant genus Banksia. It is generally encountered as a 1–2 m (3.3–6.6 ft) high shrub, and is usually smaller in the north of its range. This species has narrow green leaves, and brownish, orange or yellow round flower spikes which may be seen from January to July. It is widely distributed across the southwest of Western Australia, growing exclusively in sandy soils. It is usually the dominant plant in scrubland or low woodland. It is pollinated by, and is a food source for, birds, mammals, and insects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Proteaceae</span> Family of flowering plants

The Proteaceae form a family of flowering plants predominantly distributed in the Southern Hemisphere. The family comprises 83 genera with about 1,660 known species. Australia and South Africa have the greatest concentrations of diversity. Together with the Platanaceae, Nelumbonaceae and in the recent APG IV system the Sabiaceae, they make up the order Proteales. Well-known 'Proteaceae genera include Protea, Banksia, Embothrium, Grevillea, Hakea and Macadamia. Species such as the New South Wales waratah, king protea, and various species of Banksia, Grevillea, and Leucadendron are popular cut flowers. The nuts of Macadamia integrifolia are widely grown commercially and consumed, as are those of Gevuina avellana on a smaller scale.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pollination syndrome</span> Flower traits that attract pollinators

Pollination syndromes are suites of flower traits that have evolved in response to natural selection imposed by different pollen vectors, which can be abiotic or biotic, such as birds, bees, flies, and so forth through a process called pollinator-mediated selection. These traits include flower shape, size, colour, odour, reward type and amount, nectar composition, timing of flowering, etc. For example, tubular red flowers with copious nectar often attract birds; foul smelling flowers attract carrion flies or beetles, etc.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Western pygmy possum</span> Species of marsupial

The western pygmy possum, also known as the southwestern pygmy possum or the mundarda, is a small marsupial found in Australia. Genetic studies indicate its closest relative is probably the eastern pygmy possum, from which its ancestors diverged around eight million years ago.

<i>Adenanthos obovatus</i> Shrub of the family Proteaceae, endemic to southwest Australia

Adenanthos obovatus, commonly known as basket flower, or, jugflower, is a shrub of the plant family Proteaceae endemic to Southwest Australia. Described by French naturalist Jacques Labillardière in 1805, it had first been collected by Archibald Menzies in 1791. Within the genus Adenanthos, it lies in the section Eurylaema and is most closely related to A. barbiger. A. obovatus has hybridized with A. detmoldii to produce the hybrid A. × pamela. Several common names allude to the prominent red flowers of the species. It grows as a many-stemmed spreading bush up to 1 m (3.3 ft) high, and about 1.5 m (4.9 ft) across, with fine bright green foliage. Made up of single red flowers, the inflorescences appear from April to December, and peak in spring.

<i>Adenanthos terminalis</i> Species of shrub in the family Proteaceae found in south eastern regions of Australia

Adenanthos terminalis, commonly known as gland flower, yellow gland flower or adenanthos, is a one metre tall shrub in the family Proteaceae. It is found in south eastern regions of Australia, in the states of South Australia and Victoria, and is the most widespread of the two Adenanthos species occurring outside of Western Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Petauroidea</span> Superfamily of marsupials

Petauroidea is a superfamily of marsupials from Australia and New Guinea. It is part of the suborder Phalangeriformes within the order Diprotodontia, which also includes, among others, wombats, kangaroos, cuscuses. The superfamily Phalangeroidea, including cuscuses and brushtail possums and pygmy possums, is the immediate sister group of the Petauroidea. The earliest fossils from this superfamily are from the Oligocene of the Geilston Bay fossil site in Tasmania.

<i>Adenanthos cuneatus</i> Shrub of the family Proteaceae native to the south coast of Western Australia

Adenanthos cuneatus, also known as coastal jugflower, flame bush, bridle bush and sweat bush, is a shrub of the family Proteaceae, native to the south coast of Western Australia. The French naturalist Jacques Labillardière originally described it in 1805. Within the genus Adenanthos, it lies in the section Adenanthos and is most closely related to A. stictus. A. cuneatus has hybridized with four other species of Adenanthos. Growing to 2 m high and wide, it is erect to prostrate in habit, with wedge-shaped lobed leaves covered in fine silvery hair. The single red flowers are insignificant, and appear all year, though especially in late spring. The reddish new growth occurs over the summer.

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  17. 1 2 Bryant, K.A. (2004). The mating system and reproduction in the honey possum, Tarsipes rostratus: a life-history and genetical perspective (phd). Murdoch University.
  18. 1 2 O'Brien, P.A.; Hardy, G.A.St.J. (2014). "Phytophthora cinnamomi in Western Australia". Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia. 97 (1). The Society: 47–55.
  19. 1 2 3 4 5 Branson, Andrew; Martyn Bramwell; Robin Kerrod; Christopher O'Toole; Steve Parker; John Stidworthy (1993). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Mammals. Andromeda Oxford. pp. 26–27. ISBN   1-871869-16-1.
  20. ↑ Arrese, Catherine A.; Hart, Nathan S.; Thomas, Nicole; Beazley, Lyn D.; Shand, Julia (16 April 2002). "Trichromacy in Australian Marsupials". Current Biology. 12 (8): 657–660. doi: 10.1016/S0960-9822(02)00772-8 . ISSN   0960-9822. PMID   11967153. S2CID   14604695.
  21. ↑ Wooller, R.D.; Richardson, K.C.; Withers, P.C. (1989). "Metabolic Physiology of Euthermic and Torpid Honey Possums, Tarsipes rostratus". Australian Journal of Zoology. 37 (6): 685–693. doi:10.1071/zo9890685. ISSN   1446-5698.
  22. ↑ Bradshaw, S. D. & Bradshaw, F. J. (2002) Short-term movements and habitat utilisation of the marsupial honey possum, Tarsipes rostratus. Journal of Zoology (London) 258, 343–348.
  23. ↑ Bradshaw, S.D.; Bradshaw, F.J. (1 December 1999). "Field energetics and the estimation of pollen and nectar intake in the marsupial honey possum, Tarsipes rostratus, in heathland habitats of South-Western Australia". Journal of Comparative Physiology B. 169 (8): 569–580. doi:10.1007/s003600050257. ISSN   1432-136X. PMID   10633562. S2CID   12788350.
  24. ↑ Oates, J.E.; Bradshaw, F.J.; Bradshaw, S.D. (November 2004). "The influence of photoperiod on the reproductive activity of female Honey possums, Tarsipes rostratus (Marsupialia: Tarsipedidae): assessed by faecal progestagens and oestradiol-17β". General and Comparative Endocrinology. 139 (2): 103–112. doi:10.1016/j.ygcen.2004.07.009. PMID   15504387.
  25. ↑ "BBC Nature – Error". bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 17 April 2018.
  26. ↑ Russell, Eleanor M. (1984). Macdonald, D. (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Mammals . New York: Facts on File. pp.  878–879. ISBN   0-87196-871-1.
  27. ↑ Bradshaw, D. (2014), "7e. The Honey possum, Tarsipes rostratus, a keystone species in the kwongan", in Lambers, Hans (ed.), Plant life on the sandplains in southwest Australia : a global biodiversity hotspot : kwongan matters, Crawley, Western Australia UWA Publishing, pp. 215–224, ISBN   978-1-74258-564-2
  28. ↑ Bradshaw, F.J.; Bradshaw, S.D. (12 July 2017). "Long-term recovery from fire by a population of honey possums (Tarsipes rostratus) in the extreme south-west of Western Australia". Australian Journal of Zoology. 65 (1): 1–11. doi:10.1071/ZO16068. ISSN   1446-5698. S2CID   89773017.
  29. ↑ Wiens, Delbert; Rourke, John Patrick; Casper, Brenda B.; Eric A., Rickart; Lapine, Timothy R.; C. Jeanne, Peterson; Channing, Alan (1983). "Nonflying Mammal Pollination of Southern African Proteas: A Non-Coevolved System". Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden. 70 (1): 1–31. doi:10.2307/2399006. JSTOR   2399006 . Retrieved 20 September 2020.
  30. ↑ Landgrafft, T. (29 August 2016). "Ravensthorpe grain silos to be transformed by international street artist". ABC News.
  31. ↑ Oates, J.E.; Bradshaw, F.J.; Bradshaw, S.D.; Stead-Richardson, E.J.; Philippe, D.L. (February 2007). "Reproduction and embryonic diapause in a marsupial: Insights from captive female Honey possums, Tarsipes rostratus (Tarsipedidae)". General and Comparative Endocrinology. 150 (3): 445–461. doi:10.1016/j.ygcen.2006.11.004. PMID   17188269.
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