List of first response mnemonics

Last updated

This article is a list of mnemonics and acronyms related to first responders including community first responders, emergency departments, and other first responders with either low level or no qualifications in the relevant field. This list includes the definition of each item in the mnemonic or acronym.

Contents

General

Incident Reporting

M/ETHANE (The common structure for first responders to report information regarding an incident or emergency to superiors or incident command or control systems.) [1] [2] [3] [4] :9 [5]

Firefighting

Fire extinguisher use

PASS (The basic steps for portable fire extinguisher use.) [6]

First attack firefighting

RACE (The priority of initial actions to take against a fire.) [7] [8]

Firefighters

On arrival

I EAT (The phases of incident command.) [9]

  • Initiate - The first qualified responder on the scene will take initial command. The delegation of authority when a group or multiple types first responders are initially on scene differs from country to country.
  • Establish - When appropriate, a formal command post and structure should be established for the emergency.
  • Assume - Each time a new person is delegated command of the incident, they should properly assume command and receive a briefing or hand-over from the previous incident commander.
  • Terminate - Conclude the incident and end the formal command of the relevant responders.

TRIPOD (The six different primary phases of a fire response, in no particular order.) [9]

  • Transitional - The phase where an offensive attack is made from a defensive position, or vice versa.
  • Rescue - The phase where firefighters enter a building to search for potential casualties or victims and remove them from danger.
  • Investigating - The phase where the nature and source of the fire are investigated. This investigation aims to conclude whether there are chemical hazards or other HAZMATs exposing additional risk to nearby property and persons, and assists in identifying what measures need to be taken to protect firefighters.
  • Preparing - The phase where a plan is devised, or when plans and resources are put in place. Implemented at the conclusion of the investigating phase, or whilst waiting for additional personnel or resources.
  • Offensive - The phase where an offensive attack on the fire is conducted. Firefighters and equipment will enter the fire-affected structure to attempt to completely extinguish the fire from its source. This is usually done through entering the structure with hose lines.
  • Defensive - The phase where a defensive attack is conducted on the fire. Firefighters and equipment are used to attempt to extinguish the fire from the outside of the structure or its collapse zone. This phase is implemented when an offensive attack is not feasible due to dangers presented by the nature of the fire or structure. The primary goal of this phase is to defend nearby structures and attack a fire until additional resources or personnel arrive, or the fire is extinguished to the point where another type of attack is possible.

Incident priorities

RECEO (The general priorities at a fire scene in order, with 'V' and 'S' being added in as is appropriate considering the fire, personnel and equipment.) [9]

  • Rescue - Get known victims out of danger and conduct assessments (whether through internal searches or interviewing of occupants) regarding the potential of un-confirmed or unknown victims.
  • Exposures - Protect nearby property that may become affected by the fire. This is the first part of preventing the spread of the fire. Exposures do not include separate rooms of the fire affected structure, but are separate structures or properties.
  • Confine - Confine the fire to the affected parts of the structure. This is the second part of preventing the spread of the fire and typically involves offensive attacks and activation of any passive fire protection systems.
  • Extinguish - Actively extinguish the fire through the use of various firefighting methods.
  • Overhaul - Check for the hidden spread of fire (such as through hot embers) and eliminate any risk of reignition (through sources such as hot-spots).
  • Ventilate - When appropriate, ventilate the structure to allow smoke to escape. Ventilation allows heat, toxic fumes and smoke to escape the structure, it increases the safety of an offensive attack and reduces the risk to any victims inside. [10]
  • Salvage - Preserve property and any items inside a fire affected structure from damage from fire, smoke and water.

ARSO (The general sequence or priority of courses of action at an incident - whether fire or rescue - in order.) [11]

  • Approach and Arrival - What is done as the firefighting unit arrives at the incident to ensure their safety, as well as any initial actions (such as locating fire hydrants).
  • Rescue - What is done by the firefighting unit to safely protect people at an incident.
  • Suppression - What is done by the firefighting unit to safely protect items of economic, environmental, cultural, or personal value.
  • Overhaul - What is done by the firefighting unit to safely help people and the area affected by the incident to return to normal, or to repair the effects that the incident had on these people or areas.

Size-up

WALLACE WAS HOT - (Elements of a general fire size-up, in no particular order.) [12] [13] [14] [15]

  • Water - Assess and make decisions regarding the supply of water to the fire. This usually involves locating a fire hydrant and deciding to forward lay [def 1] or reverse lay [def 2] a supply line, or defer the responsibility of water supply to the next arriving firefighter unit. For large building fires it may be necessary to conduct calculations of water flow from the available water source(s), and boost various water supplies. In remote locations there may not be an adequate water supply close enough to the fire, in which case additional equipment may need to be requested.
  • Area - Determine the rough area of any alight structures and consider requesting additional resources if necessary.
  • Life hazard - Determine if there is a hazard to the life of people who remain in the structure which is alight. It is generally recommended to assume that life safety is at risk until the firefighters have determined that the structure is clear of occupants, or that it is impossible to survive inside the structure due to the conditions of the fire.
  • Location - Determine the location, size, and extent of the fire, and possible locations where the fire could spread.
  • Apparatus - Determine the quantities and types of firefighting apparatuses that are physically available, and those currently due to arrive. The difference between currently available apparatuses which can be immediately utilised and those which are due to arrive in the near future is important (for example, an apparatus which is due to arrive may be preoccupied with another call), and should be considered when developing strategic plans. Along with the determination of apparatuses, the availability of trained personnel should also be determined and considered.
  • Construction - Identify the construction type of the alight structure. Examples of specifics to consider are the material which the structure is constructed of and hidden roofspaces.
  • Exposures - Identify the exposures [def 3] to the fire, and utilise this knowledge whilst developing strategic plans against the fire.
  • Weather - Identify the weather conditions both current and future (through a weather forecast), and evaluate their possible effects on the fire and its spread.
  • Auxiliary appliances - Determine the availability of auxiliary appliances such as sprinkler systems, and if applicable ensure the continued operation of these appliances (by, for example, increasing the supply of water to the sprinklers).
  • Special matters - Identify the presence, and determine the effects of any special matters. A special matter is anything which could negatively affect firefighting, or place additional risk to the firefighters or other people. Special matters may be grouped into utility hazards (such as downed power lines or burst water pipes), egress issues (such as barred windows or destroyed fire escape stairs), HAZMAT presence (such as explosive gas or other chemicals), and other special matters (such as confined spaces).
  • Height - Determine if the height of the structure will affect firefighting operations. Fighting fires above ground level causes additional risk to remaining building occupants as well as firefighters, as well as affecting the ability to perform actions such as rescuing victims and laying fire hoses. If firefighters need to go above the general ground level, there should be additional strategies or equipment put in place in order to maintain quick access to egress routes.
  • Occupancy - Assess the type and levels of occupancy of the structure. These matters should be considered when developing strategic plans, and may alter the order of firefighting operations. For example, a fire in a residential building during day hours of the work week may require less urgent rescue operations, whilst one in the same type of building during night hours requires the opposite.
  • Time - Determine if the current time (time of day and year) will affect strategic requirements (for example, in relation to occupancy) or response times (for example, peak hour traffic may delay apparatuses).

Wildland firefighting safety

PLACES (A general safety checklist for wildland firefighters. The addition of the initial 'P' is disputed, with some sources only using 'LACES'.) [16] [17] [11]

  • PPE - Wildland firefighters should always wear, or ensure the quick access to, appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE).[ citation needed ]
  • Lookouts - The wildfire fighting unit must ensure that they have a clear appreciation for the fire's behaviour, location, and size. The unit should establish a knowledge of the location of the fire relative to the unit itself. There must be adequate lookouts (not necessarily in fire lookout towers - perhaps on foot or in wildfire helicopters) with the capability to quickly and adequately assess the fire, and alert the wildfire fighting unit if urgent evacuation is necessary.
  • Awareness - There must be a constant awareness of the fire behaviour, and the impact of changes which occur as the fire spreads and continues to burn such as new fuel sources, fireground hazards, changes in weather, and topography.
  • Communication - Communication must always be maintained between the wildfire fighting unit, other emergency services, and other members of the wildfire fighting service. Safety issues should be discussed and addressed immediately.
  • Escape routes - A minimum of two escape routes should be agreed upon and made known to all relevant persons (such as the members of the wildfire fighting unit, other emergency service personnel, or members of the public). The suitability of, and risks to, the escape routes should be continually evaluated to ensure that they remain effective.
  • Safety zone - Safety zones should be maintained, identified or constructed, and made known to all relevant persons. The size requirements of a safety zone may change as the fire behaviour changes, and should be continually assessed. The time of escape to safety zones should also be continually assessed, and concerns or issues regarding unreasonably lengthy escape times should be immediately addressed. Escape routes and Safety zones hold key differences: Escape routes allow the firefighters to egress out of a wildfire completely (for example to complete their shift) whereas Safety zones allow firefighters to take refuge in unforeseen circumstances where the behaviour of the wildfire suddenly changes and places the firefighters at risk; Escape routes are usually further away from the firefighting unit and take longer to completely use whilst Safety zones should always be quickly accessible and available for use for periods of up to a number of hours.

Medical Care

First Aid

DRS AB CD (The general steps for initial assessment of an injured or ill person.) [18] [19] [20] [21]

COWS (The method for checking an injured or ill person's response level as per 'R' in DRS AB CD.) [28] [29] [30]

A MIST (Order of the steps in a handover procedure from first aider to paramedics or further medical care.) [31] [32]

Emergency Medicine

Specific Injuries or Illnesses

Shock

TV SPARC CUBE (Signs and symptoms of shock.) [33] [34] [35] [36]

  • Thirst - Thirst or a dry mouth is a possible symptom of shock.
  • Vomiting - Vomiting or nausea are possible signs of shock.
  • Sweating - Excessive sweating is a possible sign of shock. [36]
  • Pulse - A rapid and hypokinetic pulse (a weak and fast pulse) is a sign of possible shock.
  • Anxious - Abnormal levels of anxiety or irritability are both possible symptoms of shock.
  • Respirations - Rapid and shallow breathing is a possible sign of shock.
  • Cool - Cold and clammy skin is a possible sign of shock.
  • Cyanotic - Meaning to have bluish or purplish discolouration of the skin or mucous membranes - is a possible sign of shock.
  • Unconscious - Extended or more extreme cases of shock are likely to lead to unconsciousness.
  • Blood pressure low - Low blood pressure is a common sign for all types of shock.
  • Eyes blank - Confusion, weakness, drowsiness, fainting, dizziness, disorientation, and expanded pupils are all possible signs and symptoms of shock which may be observable through the person's eyes.

Pain

TWEED SASH:

Non-Pharmacological Analgesic Strategies
Psychological Interventions
TTherapeutic Touch (e.g. hand-holding)
WWarn about painful interventions
EExplain what is, or is about to, happen
EEye contact
DDefend (patient) dignity
Physical Interventions
SStabilise fractures
AApply dressings to cover burns
SSoft surface (avoid rigid spinal boards or stretchers)
HHypothermia avoidance

Stroke

FAST (Detection of a stroke.) [37] [38]

  • Face - Facial drooping, particularly on one side of the face, is a symptom of a stroke. The person of concern should be asked to smile - if the smile is lopsided or the person is unable to smile, this is a concern.
  • Arms - Arm weakness or numbness is a symptom of a stroke, particularly where one arm is weaker than another. The person of concern should be asked to lift both arms to the same height - if one arm drifts downward or the person is unable to lift their arms as expected, this is a concern.
  • Speech - An inability or difficulty to understand or produce speech is a symptom of a stroke. The person of concern should be asked to repeat a simple sentence - if they have trouble understanding the request, or they are unable to or find it difficult to repeat the sentence without slurring, this is a concern.
  • Time - If any of the above symptoms present themselves it is time to call emergency services.

HEADS (Risk factors of a stroke.) [33] [39]

  • Hypertension or Hyperlipidimea - Hypertension (high blood pressure) or hyperlipidemia (elevated levels of any lipids such as fat in the blood) are both risk factors for a stroke, with extended high blood pressure being the most major risk factor. [39]
  • Elderly - The elderly are more at risk of a stroke. [40]
  • Atrial fibrillation - Rapid and irregular heart rhythm is associated with increased risk of a stroke.
  • Diabetes or Drugs - Diabetes mellitus or the use of drugs such as cocaine increase the risk of a stroke, with the risk of a stroke from cocaine usage being greatest within the first few hours after use. [41]
  • Smoking or Sex - Tobacco smoking is a risk factor for a stroke. Other uses of tobacco (such as chewing) have a possible increase in the risk of stroke. [42] In younger ages males (sex assignment at birth) have a higher risk of strokes than the corresponding age group of females.[ citation needed ] However, during and in the weeks following pregnancy, women have a higher risk of a stroke. [43] Women also have a higher risk of a stroke overall due to the risk of stroke increasing with age, and the life expectancy of women being longer than men. [44]

Notes

Definitions

  1. Forward lay: The process of laying out a water supply hose from the water source to the fire, after initially connecting the supply hose to the source.
  2. Reverse lay: The process of laying out a water supply hose from the fire to the water source, and finally connecting the supply hose to the source.
  3. Exposure: Separate structures or objects located near to a fire, which may be set on fire due to the transfer of heat or burning materials.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Community emergency response team</span>

In the United States, Community Emergency Response Team (CERT) can refer to

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Firefighter</span> Rescuer trained to extinguish fires and save people

A firefighter is a first responder trained in firefighting, primarily to control and extinguish fires that threaten life and property, as well as to rescue persons from confinement or dangerous situations. Male firefighters are sometimes referred to as firemen.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Volunteer fire department</span> Fire department composed of volunteers

A volunteer fire department (VFD) is a fire department of volunteers who perform fire suppression and other related emergency services for a local jurisdiction. Volunteer and retained (on-call) firefighters are expected to be on call to respond to emergency calls for long periods of time, and are summoned to the fire station when their services are needed. They are also expected to attend other non-emergency duties as well.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">First responder</span> Trained emergency personnel

A first responder is a person with specialized training who is among the first to arrive and provide assistance or incident resolution at the scene of an emergency. First responders typically include law enforcement officers, emergency medical services members, fire service members and Public Works employees such as Heavy Equipment Operators as well as Public Works Tree Department personnel. In some jurisdictions, emergency department personnel, such as doctors and nurses, are also required to respond to disasters and critical situations, designating them first responders; in other jurisdictions, military and security forces may also be authorized to act as first responders.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Firefighting</span> Actions to prevent damage from fire

Firefighting is a profession aimed at controlling and extinguishing fire. A person who engages in firefighting is known as a firefighter or fireman. Firefighters typically undergo a high degree of technical training. This involves structural firefighting and wildland firefighting. Specialized training includes aircraft firefighting, shipboard firefighting, aerial firefighting, maritime firefighting, and proximity firefighting.

In firefighting, the policy of two-in, two-out refers to United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) policy 29 CFR 1910.134(g)(4)(i). The respiratory protection standard requires that workers engaged in fighting interior structural fires work in a buddy system; at least two workers must enter the building together, so that they can monitor each other's whereabouts as well as the work environment. There must also be at least two standby personnel outside the fire area prepared to rescue the inside firefighters should the need arise. One of these outside firefighters must actively monitor the status of the inside fighters but the second outside firefighter may perform a variety of other duties, such as pump operations, incident commander or outside hose line operation. There are no provisions in the standard to waive the requirements for either the "two-inside firefighters" or the "two-outside firefighters", although the circumstances under which this provision applies are more limited than generally understood.

The Orsec-Novi plan, or short Novi plan, is a French emergency plan used for a mass casualty incident (mascal), i.e. if an emergency has a significant number of casualties in a limited area. Its aim is to organize the rescue resources to cope with the concentrated casualties. It was formerly called red plan ; "Orsec" stands for "rescue management", and "novi" for "multiple casualties".

Firefighting jargon includes a diverse lexicon of both common and idiosyncratic terms. One problem that exists in trying to create a list such as this is that much of the terminology used by a particular department is specifically defined in their particular standing operating procedures, such that two departments may have completely different terms for the same thing. For example, depending on whom one asks, a safety team may be referred to as a standby, a RIT or RIG or RIC, or a FAST. Furthermore, a department may change a definition within its SOP, such that one year it may be RIT, and the next RIG or RIC.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diver rescue</span> Rescue of a distressed or incapacitated diver

Diver rescue, usually following an accident, is the process of avoiding or limiting further exposure to diving hazards and bringing a diver to a place of safety. A safe place generally means a place where the diver cannot drown, such as a boat or dry land, where first aid can be administered and from which professional medical treatment can be sought. In the context of surface supplied diving, the place of safety for a diver with a decompression obligation is often the diving bell.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aircraft rescue and firefighting</span>

Aircraft rescue and firefighting (ARFF) is a type of firefighting that involves the emergency response, mitigation, evacuation, and rescue of passengers and crew of aircraft involved in aviation accidents and incidents.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Firefighter rehabilitation</span> Services provided after working at the scene of an incident

Firefighter rehabilitation is a vital firefighting service, providing firefighters and other emergency personnel with immediate medical attention including rehydration, treatment for smoke inhalation, and the prevention of life-threatening conditions such as heatstroke and heart attack after working at the scene of an incident. Firefighter rehabilitation can include a variety of things from a simple check up to deciding whether or not the firefighter needs to see a doctor. The rehabilitation area is set up in a safe location near the incident so that it can be accessible to any emergency responders who may need it.

As firefighting has a rich history throughout the world, traditions in this profession vary widely from country to country.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to firefighting:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Essex County Fire and Rescue Service</span> Regional fire and rescue service in England

Essex County Fire and Rescue Service (ECFRS) is the statutory fire and rescue service for the county of Essex in the east of England, and is one of the largest fire services in the country, covering an area of 1,338 square miles (3,470 km2) and a population of over 1.7 million people.

<i>Essentials of Fire Fighting</i>

Essentials of Fire Fighting is a fire service training manual produced by Fire Protection Publications (FPP) and the International Fire Service Training Association (IFSTA). Fire Protection Publications is a department of Oklahoma State University College of Engineering, Architecture, and Technology (CEAT) in Stillwater, Oklahoma. This manual is used by fire service training agencies and departments around the world to train personnel to become firefighters. The Essentials of Fire Fighting is the required training manual used in countless local fire departments and state/provincial training agencies in every region of the United States and Canada. Since the release of the first edition of this manual in 1978, more than 2.5 million copies of the Essentials of Fire Fighting have been distributed to the fire service.

Firefighting is the act of extinguishing destructive fires. A firefighter fights these fires with the intent to prevent destruction of life, property and the environment. Firefighting is a highly technical profession, which requires years of training and education in order to become proficient. A fire can rapidly spread and endanger many lives; however, with modern firefighting techniques, catastrophe can usually be avoided. To help prevent fires from starting, a firefighter's duties include public education and conducting fire inspections. Because firefighters are often the first responders to victims in critical conditions, firefighters often also provide basic life support as emergency medical technicians or advanced life support as licensed paramedics. Firefighters make up one of the major emergency services, along with the emergency medical service, the police, and many others.

The provision of rescue and firefighting services (RFFS) at all airports and aerodromes in the United Kingdom is a requirement under British law and under international agreements set out by the International Civil Aviation Organization.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Suffolk Fire and Rescue Service</span>

Suffolk Fire and Rescue Service (SFRS) is the statutory fire and rescue service covering the county of Suffolk in East Anglia, England. It was formed in 1948 as the Suffolk & Ipswich Fire Service, before changing after the 1974 Local Government Review to 'Suffolk Fire Service'. Following the 2004 Fire & Rescue Services Act, the service name was changed to Suffolk Fire & Rescue Service to better reflect its role. Suffolk has a population of 760,556 and covers 1,466 square miles (3,800 km2). The county town is Ipswich with other major towns including Lowestoft, Bury St-Edmunds, Felixstowe and Newmarket.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scottish Fire and Rescue Service</span> National fire and rescue service of Scotland

The Scottish Fire and Rescue Service is the national fire and rescue service of Scotland. It was formed by the merger of eight regional fire services in the country on 1 April 2013. It thus became the largest fire brigade in the United Kingdom, surpassing the London Fire Brigade.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fire and Emergency New Zealand</span> National fire and emergency service of New Zealand

Fire and Emergency New Zealand is New Zealand's main firefighting and emergency services body.

References

  1. "M/ETHANE". Joint Emergency Services Interoperability Principles (JESIP) . Retrieved 25 August 2021.
  2. "M/ETHANE Form" (DOCX). Joint Emergency Services Interoperability Principles (JESIP). 9 January 2018. Retrieved 25 August 2021.
  3. "Resource Manual". Joint Emergency Services Interoperability Principles (JESIP). February 2018. p. 14. Retrieved 25 August 2021.
  4. Russel, R. J. (February 2000). "The Approach to a Major Incident" (PDF). Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps . 146 (1): 8–12. doi: 10.1136/jramc-146-01-02 . PMID   15241977 . Retrieved 25 August 2021.
  5. Jones, Cory. "Major Incident Management (METHANE)". First Aid Training Co-operative. Retrieved 25 August 2021.
  6. "Safe Operating of Fire Extinguishers". Fire and Rescue NSW . Government of New South Wales, Australia . Retrieved 17 August 2021.
  7. "Fire Safety: The R.A.C.E. Protocol" (PDF). Risk Resources for Health Care. GuideOne. Retrieved 17 August 2021.
  8. "In Case of Fire". Fire and Rescue NSW . Government of New South Wales, Australia . Retrieved 17 August 2021.
  9. 1 2 3 "firefighting mnemonics". dafydd. Retrieved 17 August 2021.
  10. Firefighter Nation Content Directors. "The Why & When of Ventilation". FirefighterNation. Retrieved 17 August 2021.
  11. 1 2 Meijer, D., Brinkworth, A. NSW Rural Fire Service Pocketbook (Android or iOS Application) (Version 5.1.0). New South Wales Rural Fire Service, Operational Improvement Section. Section: 'Acronyms'.
  12. Silvernail, Jim (2013). Suburban Fire Tactics. Google Books: Fire Engineering Books. pp. 80–88. ISBN   978-1-59370-294-6.
  13. Firefighter Nation Content Directors (1 March 2015). "Avoiding Chaos". FirefighterNation. Retrieved 1 September 2021.
  14. Stiles, Kevin T. (February 2009). "Fire Ground Size-Up for Loundoun County, Virginia". Homeland Security Digital Library . Loundoun County Department of Fire, Rescue, and Emergency Management. Retrieved 5 September 2021.
  15. eugene (26 January 2008). "mnemonic for technical rescue, fire fighting and hazmat". Firehouse Forums - Firefighting Discussion. Retrieved 5 September 2021. Size-up WALLACE WAS HOT: ...
  16. "LACES" (PDF). Strategic Capability Division, Operational Capability Directorate, Community Fire Unit Program. Fire and Rescue NSW . Safe Work Information Sheet Series (SWISS) - Number 2. Government of New South Wales, Australia . Retrieved 1 September 2021.
  17. "The LACES safety protocol". National Operational Guidance. Central Programme Office. National Fire Chiefs Council (which owns "www.ukfrs.com"). Retrieved 1 September 2021.
  18. John Furst. "What does DRSABCD stand for in first aid?". First Aid Blog. First Aid for free!. Retrieved 17 August 2021.
  19. St John Ambulance Australia. "First aid basics and DRSABCD". Department of Health. Better Health Channel. Victoria State Government . Retrieved 17 August 2021.
  20. "What Does DRSABCD Stand For?". First Aid Accident & Emergency. 15 June 2016. Retrieved 19 August 2021.
  21. "DRSABCD action plan". St John NSW . St John Ambulance Australia . Retrieved 19 August 2021.
  22. "The Golden Rule You Need To Know Before Moving a Casualty". St John Ambulance Victoria. St John Ambulance Australia. 24 July 2018. Retrieved 17 August 2021.
  23. Gliddon, Jacob. "Moving a Casualty - When and How Should You Do It?". Warp Training Learning Blog. Warp Training Australia. Retrieved 17 August 2021.
  24. 1 2 3 Ambulance Victoria. "Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR)". Department of Health. Better Health Channel. Victoria State Government . Retrieved 19 August 2021. ... in cardiac arrest, some people will take occasional gasping breaths – they still need CPR at this point. ... 30 compressions to two breaths ... If unwilling to do mouth-to-mouth, perform continuous compressions at a rate of approximately 100 per minute.
  25. Australian and New Zealand Committee on Resuscitation (April 2021). "ANZCOR Guideline 6 - Compressions" (PDF). The ARC Guidelines. Section 6 - Circulation. Australian Resuscitation Council. p. 5. Retrieved 19 August 2021.
  26. Australian and New Zealand Committee on Resuscitation (April 2021). "ANZCOR Guideline 8 - Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR)" (PDF). The ARC Guidelines. Section 8 - Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation. Australian Resuscitation Council. pp. 2–3. Retrieved 19 August 2021.
  27. "How to perform CPR". healthdirect. September 2019. Retrieved 19 August 2021.
  28. "OHS Practices - First Aid". Electrotech Resources. Retrieved 19 August 2021.
  29. "Unconscious Person". Training and Paramedical Services. Australia First Aid Services. Retrieved 19 August 2021.
  30. Furst, John. "What does COWS stand for in first aid?". First Aid Blog. First Aid for free!. Retrieved 19 August 2021.
  31. Meister, Matt (3 April 2014). "Handing over to Paramedics and Further Medical Care". National Institute of First Aid Trainers. Retrieved 24 August 2021.
  32. "emd mnemonics". dafydd. Retrieved 24 August 2021.
  33. 1 2 Dikme, Ozlem. "Mnemonics". International Emergency Medicine Education Project. iEM for Medical Students and Interns.
  34. St John Ambulance Australia Victoria. "Shock". Department of Health. Better Health Channel. Victoria State Government . Retrieved 25 August 2021.
  35. Mayo Clinic Staff (29 April 2021). "Shock: First Aid". Mayo Clinic . Retrieved 25 August 2021.
  36. 1 2 "Everything you need to know about shock". MedicalNewsToday. 11 November 2019. Retrieved 25 August 2021.
  37. "Signs of stroke". Stroke Foundation. Retrieved 24 August 2021.
  38. "Stroke Symptoms". American Stroke Association. American Heart Association . Retrieved 24 August 2021.
  39. 1 2 "Stroke - Risk Factors". National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute . United States Department of Health and Human Services . Retrieved 24 August 2021.
  40. Kissela, Brett M.; Khoury, Jane C.; Alwell, Kathleen; Moomaw, Charles J.; Woo, Daniel; Adeoye, Opeolu; Flaherty, Matthew L.; Khatri, Pooja; Ferioli, Simona; De Los Rios La Rosa, Felipe; Broderick, Joseph P.; Kleindorfer, Dawn O. (23 October 2012). "Age at stroke". Neurology . 79 (17). Table 2. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e318270401d. ISSN   1526-632X. PMC   3475622 . PMID   23054237.
  41. McKenna, Jon. "Cocaine Use and Stroke: Everything You Need to Know". Connect to Care. WebMD. Retrieved 25 August 2021.
  42. Hergens, Maria-Pia; Lambe, Mats; Pershagen, Göran; Terent, Andreas; Ye, Weimin (November 2008). "Smokeless tobacco and the risk of stroke". Epidemiology . 19 (6) (Original ed.): 794–799. doi: 10.1097/EDE.0b013e3181878b33 . PMID   18854704.
  43. "A stroke in pregnancy". Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada. Retrieved 25 August 2021.
  44. Hiraga, Akiyuki (June 2017). "Gender Differences and Stroke Outcomes". Neuroepidemiology . 48 (1–2): 61–62. doi: 10.1159/000475451 . ISSN   0251-5350. PMID   28419999.