New Zealand archaeology

Last updated
One Tree Hill pā (fortified village), Auckland [1]

New Zealand's archaeology started in the early 1800s and was largely conducted by amateurs with little regard for meticulous study. [2] However, starting slowly in the 1870s detailed research answered questions about human culture, that have international relevance and wide public interest. [3] Archaeology (here used in a broad sense) has, along with oral traditions, defined New Zealand's prehistory (c. 1300 – c. 1800) and has been a valuable aid in solving some later historical problems. New Zealand has one of the shortest prehistoric periods in the world and in the popular culture the term typically extends back to the breakup of Gondwana, not the stone age. [4] However, academically New Zealand's human prehistory is broadly divided into Archaic (~paleolithic then ~mesolithic) after c. 1300 AD and Classical (~neolithic) after c. 1500 AD periods, based on Māori culture. Eurasian labels do not perfectly fit as some level of horticulture was always present in northern New Zealand, even existing at the same time as megafauna. More simply it can also be divided into time periods of pre and post European contact. Large poorly documented sections of New Zealand's more recent history have also been supplemented by archaeological research, such as at old battle sites or early urban centres. [5] [6]

Contents

Debated questions in New Zealand's prehistoric archaeology

Many questions about prehistoric New Zealand have been answered by archaeology and for most it is unlikely that new information will radically change our understanding. However some questions are still debated in the recent academic press in the hope that a new argument or data may bring resolution.

Date of first Māori arrival and settlement

Mount TaraweraWairau Bar

It is unlikely that datable evidence of the very first human arrival will ever be found. Therefore it would be expected that the age of first settlement would become older as new artifacts were uncovered, the reverse has been true. In 1989 changes in the New Zealand biota was inferred to have occurred around 1000 AD and was linked to early settlement. [7] This was later also found by using radiometric methods in 1993 and a model of a "middle" age of settlement developed. [8]

In 1999 a sample from the Wairau Bar site gave a "late" age of 1230–1282 AD age [9] which was approximately confirmed by the study of charcoal and pollen that same year. [10] The Wairau Bar settlement is early in New Zealand settlement due to the presence of remains of people born in tropical Polynesia and tool of the same origin. [11] At this time a number of unusually early dates from rat skeletons were being recorded (possible as early as 50 AD). This was first used as evidence for separate rat and human migrations as the post 1000 AD age was well established. [12] However, some speculation did occur that Māori may have come to New Zealand at that "early" date even if they did not settle.

By 2004 these early dates were becoming suspect due to methodological error and rat-gnawed seeds were confirming the late date. [13] By 2008 there was little doubt that rats came to New Zealand with Māori around 1280 AD. [14] This was confirmed in 2011 by a meta analyses of dates from throughout the Pacific that showed a sudden pulse of migration leading to all of New Zealand being settled (including the Chatham Islands by 1290 AD). [15]

More recent papers (2014 and 2017) have subtly disputed this date, preferring a post 1300 AD arrival, using as evidence moa egg shells and the Kaharoa eruption of Mount Tarawera (1314±6 AD), which they say is below all well dated sites. [16] [17] [18] In spite of this some researches (2018) considered the debate over, in favour of the late 13th century date. [19]

Population growth rates

The debate over Māori population size has two main areas of interest, how many settlers came to New Zealand and what was the population when European contact occurred. The second number is partly an historical questions and estimated populations have not strayed far from Captain Cook's first estimate of 100,000, [20] with some researches going up to 150,000. This number coupled with an inferred low growth rate has led researchers to require either a large founding population (>300 people) or an early settlement date (600-850 AD). [21] [22] Therefore a date of c. 1300 AD requires a mass migration from tropical Polynesian, [17] even though mitochondrial DNA implies a medium number of approximately 70 women settlers. [23]

This story is further complicated by the South Islands slow growth rates throughout prehistory. [24] This is because kumara was extremely difficult to grow in the South Island even during warm climatic periods. [25] [26] There is evidence that the "little ice age" effected New Zealand and caused a shrinking of the population. [19] The extent of this cold period in New Zealand is unknown but it may have peaked in the early 18th century. [27] By 1886 diseases like measles, war and disruption led to a Māori population of about 40,000 and 2000 in the North and South islands respectively. [28]

Transitions in Māori culture

Archaic middens show that in many settlements seals were a more important food source than moa. [2]
Pounamu objects require different working techniques to other rocks due to their hardness.

Māori culture has been in constant adaptation to New Zealand's changing environment. From the late 1950s onward the term Archaic and Classical culture have been used to describe the early and late phases of the prehistoric Māori. [3] Archaic replacing the older term "Moa Hunter" as the hunter-gatherer society lasted beyond the mega fauna (as with Eurasia's Mesolithic).

The Archaic and Classical labels were intentional chronological and not descriptive. They did not offer a definitive definition of either culture that could be used across time and space. Particularly in locations like the southern South Island where Classical tribes may migrate to regions where only an Archaic life was possible. [2] Various transitional cultural artifacts and models have been proposed, however, there is still a dearth of evidence for a clear middle phase. [29] Currently the Archaic culture is seen as semi nomadic hunter-gatherers with small gardens and populations, while the later Classical culture had large gardens and fortified permanent villages. Kumara until the classical period remained in the north until the building of storage pits and gardening methods allowed its storage over winter further south. [29] In many sites in New Zealand the absence of a middle phase or the constraint of only two options has led to other interpretations, including a seven fold evolution of boom and bust cycles. [30] Growing kumara would have been possible in the South Island during some climatic condition, but very difficult on northern south island. [25]

Topic [29] ArchaicTransitionClassical
EnvironmentOriginal landscape (some fire) throughout New ZealandFire and deforestationModified landscape mostly in North Island
Lifestylehunter gather over large areas of New Zealand, but limited mass migration across country. Undefended settlements and little warfare, little slavery, burial near settlementsClimatic and economic changeLocalised living, with mass migration, Pā and warfare, slavery common, cannibalism?, hidden burial far from village
ToolsConservative continuance of older Polynesian cultureAdaptation to new environment Pounamu (jade) carving
HousesSeasonal (wharerau)Over hunting and extinctionsPermanent (wharepuni)
FoodBig game hunting and small gardensCommodification of productionSmall game hunting and large gardens
PoliticsSmall groups (whānau to hapū)Increasing social complexityLarge groups (hapūto iwi)

Communication and migration

Archaic Māori objects from Wairau Bar, note the obsidian (top left) from the Taupo Volcanic Zone.
Waka (boat) recovered from the Taieri River plains.

As early settlers to New Zealand came in great numbers with supplies for planting numinous crop types it is speculated that it was a planned migration to a known location. However, evidence for continued communication between New Zealand and tropical Polynesia is absent in the archaeological record. The Māori did, however, maintained the technology for long sea voyages reaching the Chatham Islands in the 16th century. There is also no evidence for domestic pigs and chickens from the Pacific making it to New Zealand and it can be inferred that they would have, should trade networks have been built. [20] If this were true New Zealand is the only Polynesian archipelago not to communicate with the other ones. [31]

There is some speculation that migration to New Zealand continued throughout the Archaic period from non archaeological sources. [32] The Māori language has changed little in the 700 years since it separated from Cook Islands Māori.

The earliest archaeological sites in New Zealand have implements from tropical Polynesia. [33] There is also evidence that obsidian was traded throughout New Zealand from soon after arrival. However it was only in the sixteenth century that pounamu (jade) was traded around New Zealand, with a different supply network to the obsidian. [34] Earthquakes caused changing living patterns and the movement of people. [35]

Resource management in a new environment

The ability of prehistoric Māori to manage resources and foresee ecological collapses has been the source of much debate. [2] [36] Natural fires were rare in New Zealand, yet much of the country was covered in dry forest, early Māori didn't protect fire‐prone areas and there is no evidence of systematic burning of less fire‐prone ones. [37] Many New Zealand species may have been heading for slow extinction after Polynesian settlement. [2] The extension of the mega fauna (moa) seems to have occurred quickly, within 100 years. [38] The first settlers came to New Zealand from tropical Polynesia and adapted to a temperate environment while preserving many of their old practices. Some conservative use of tropical Polynesian methods lasted well into the Archaic period. [39]

Historical archaeology

Historical archaeology in New Zealand started late and grew slowly, it was only by the 1960s that European structures were being systematically excavated. [40] [41] Although it has been used to solve some historical questions, such as the Taranaki Māori political prisoners in the Dunedin jail work on Pounamu in the late 1800s. [42] There is also interest in the study of post contact Maori sites. [43]

History of archaeology

Early archaeology in New Zealand was performed by anthropologists and private collectors of Māori artifacts. Many sites where destroyed by caress scavenging or poorly documented research. [2] [44] Systematical research was first conducted by the museums from the main cities, followed by anthropology departments in the universities of Auckland and Otago. In 1955 the New Zealand Archaeological Association was founded. [45]

During this time in New Zealand the study of Māori oral tradition was more influential than archaeological techniques. The coming of the Māori "Great Fleet" to New Zealand was inferred to be in 1350 AD solely from traditional evidence (similar to modern estimates from carbon dating). [44]

In the 21st century high resolution Landsat data was being used to interpret archaeological sites, [46] although there was some doubt about the effectiveness of some modern tools. [47] Archaeology departments conduct research from the university of Otago, Auckland and Canterbury. New Zealand archaeology is published in the Journal of Pacific Archaeology, the Journal of the Polynesian Society and in other international journals.

List of notable prehistoric archaeological sites

Exceptional archaeological sites are included in the national register (administered by Heritage New Zealand) in five groups: historic places (Category 1 and 2), historic areas, Wāhi Tūpuna (practical sites), Wāhi Tapu (spiritual sites) and Wahi Tapu areas. [48] New Zealand has thousands of prehistoric sites, many of which are documented by the Historic Places Trust. Only a small fraction of these have detailed published archaeological reports. For example in the South Island there are 550 rock art sites and 107 in the North Island and 6956 Pā in all New Zealand. [49] [5] The types of features present in New Zealand pre European archaeology are pā, storage pits, gardens (stone rows and banks), house floors, terraces, trenches, umu (earth ovens), middens, quarries, rock art and changes to the local flora. [5]

DatePeriodSite nameTypeRegionResearchPhotoGrid reference
c. 1750 [50] Classical Huriawa Peninsula [51] PāOtagoTe Pa a Te Wera, reserve, and archaeological sites
 45°38′26″S170°39′59″E / 45.640617°S 170.666309°E / -45.640617; 170.666309
Kaingaroa rock art [52] Rock artTaupo 38°27′S176°43′E / 38.45°S 176.71°E / -38.45; 176.71
Both Motutapu Island [53] Pā and settlementAucklandTransition from Archaic to Classical with well dated ash layer from Rangitoto (left in image).
 36°46′07″S176°42′28″E / 36.768654°S 176.707640°E / -36.768654; 176.707640
BothOpihi rock art [54] Rock artSouth CanterburyList number 9784 Historic Places Trust. [55]
44°11′50″S171°01′09″E / 44.197327°S 171.019271°E / -44.197327; 171.019271
c.1206 (from 1974) [56] Archaic Papatowai [57] SettlementOtagoImportant early site for the study of Polynesian archaeology.
 46°33′43″S169°28′34″E / 46.562°S 169.476°E / -46.562; 169.476
Rangikapiti [5] PāNorthlandPre-European contact fortified village
 34°59′06″S173°31′32″E / 34.984874°S 173.525565°E / -34.984874; 173.525565
1300s [58] ArchaicShag River mouthSettlementOtagoSeasonality of fishing [59] 45°28′54″S170°48′57″E / 45.481573°S 170.815767°E / -45.481573; 170.815767
ClassicalTe KoraPāTaranakiLarge Pā complex, site of early work by Elsdon Best. [60] 39°07′59″S173°59′19″E / 39.132972°S 173.988664°E / -39.132972; 173.988664
1288–1300Archaic Wairau Bar [11] SettlementMarlboroughMost thoroughly studied Archaic settlement. [61]
41°30′30″S174°03′53″E / 41.508458°S 174.064800°E / -41.508458; 174.064800

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Mangonui area". www.doc.govt.nz. Retrieved 2018-12-17.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 West, Jonathan (2017). The Face of Nature: An Environmental History of the Otago Peninsula. Otago University Press. ISBN   9781927322383.
  3. 1 2 Barber, Ian (1995). "Journal of the Polynesian Society: Constructions Of Change: A History Of Early Maori Culture Sequences, By Ian Barber, P 357-396". www.jps.auckland.ac.nz. Retrieved 2018-12-13.
  4. ↑ Stevens, Graeme; McGlone, Matt; McCulloch, Beverley (2013). Prehistoric New Zealand. Royal New Zealand Foundation of the Blind.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Jones, Kevin L. (2007). The Penguin Field Guide to New Zealand Archaeology. Penguin Books. ISBN   9780143020707.
  6. ↑ Constantine, Ellie (2010-11-15). "Artefacts hold insight to our past". Otago Daily Times Online News. Retrieved 2018-12-25.
  7. ↑ McGlone, M.S (1989). "THE POLYNESIAN SETTLEMENT OF NEW ZEALAND IN RELATION TO ENVIRONMENTAL AND BIOTIC CHANGES on JSTOR". New Zealand Journal of Ecology. 12: 115–129. JSTOR   24053254.
  8. ↑ Anderson, Atholl; Spriggs, Matthew (1993). "Late colonization of East Polynesia". Antiquity. 67 (255): 200–217. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00045324. ISSN   1745-1744.
  9. ↑ Jacomb, Chris; Anderson, Atholl; Higham, Thomas (1999). "Dating the first New Zealanders: the chronology of Wairau Bar". Antiquity. 73 (280): 420–427. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00088360. ISSN   1745-1744.
  10. ↑ McGlone, M.; Wilmshurst, Janet M. (1999-07-01). "Dating initial Maori environmental impact in New Zealand". Quaternary International. 59 (1): 5–16. Bibcode:1999QuInt..59....5M. doi:10.1016/S1040-6182(98)00067-6. ISSN   1040-6182.
  11. 1 2 "Most important archaeological site in New Zealand continues to lure researchers to Wairau Bar, Marlborough". Stuff. Retrieved 2018-12-18.
  12. ↑ Holdaway, Richard N. (1999). "A spatio‐temporal model for the invasion of the New Zealand archipelago by the Pacific ratRattus exulans". Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand. 29 (2): 91–105. doi:10.1080/03014223.1999.9517586. ISSN   0303-6758.
  13. ↑ Wilmshurstl, Janet M.; Higham, Thomas F.G. (2004-09-01). "Using rat-gnawed seeds to independently date the arrival of Pacific rats and humans in New Zealand". The Holocene. 14 (6): 801–806. Bibcode:2004Holoc..14..801W. doi:10.1191/0959683604hl760ft. ISSN   0959-6836.
  14. ↑ Worthy, Trevor H.; Higham, Thomas F. G.; Anderson, Atholl J.; Wilmshurst, Janet M. (2008-06-03). "Dating the late prehistoric dispersal of Polynesians to New Zealand using the commensal Pacific rat". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 105 (22): 7676–7680. Bibcode:2008PNAS..105.7676W. doi:10.1073/pnas.0801507105. ISSN   1091-6490. PMC   2409139 . PMID   18523023.
  15. ↑ Wilmshurst, Janet M.; Hunt, Terry L.; Lipo, Carl P.; Anderson, Atholl J. (2011-02-01). "High-precision radiocarbon dating shows recent and rapid initial human colonization of East Polynesia". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 108 (5): 1815–1820. Bibcode:2011PNAS..108.1815W. doi:10.1073/pnas.1015876108. ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   3033267 . PMID   21187404.
  16. ↑ Bunce, Michael; Beavan, Nancy R.; Oskam, Charlotte L.; Jacomb, Christopher; Allentoft, Morten E.; Holdaway, Richard N. (2014-11-07). "An extremely low-density human population exterminated New Zealand moa". Nature Communications. 5: 5436. Bibcode:2014NatCo...5E5436H. doi:10.1038/ncomms6436. ISSN   2041-1723. PMID   25378020.
  17. 1 2 Walter, Richard; Buckley, Hallie; Jacomb, Chris; Matisoo-Smith, Elizabeth (2017). "Mass Migration and the Polynesian Settlement of New Zealand". Journal of World Prehistory. 30 (4): 351–376. doi:10.1007/s10963-017-9110-y. ISSN   0892-7537.
  18. ↑ Jacomb, Chris; Holdaway, Richard N.; Allentoft, Morten E.; Bunce, Michael; Oskam, Charlotte L.; Walter, Richard; Brooks, Emma (2014-10-01). "High-precision dating and ancient DNA profiling of moa (Aves: Dinornithiformes) eggshell documents a complex feature at Wairau Bar and refines the chronology of New Zealand settlement by Polynesians". Journal of Archaeological Science. 50: 24–30. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2014.05.023. ISSN   0305-4403.
  19. 1 2 Newnham, Rewi; Lowe, David J; Gehrels, Maria; Augustinus, Paul (2018-07-01). "Two-step human–environmental impact history for northern New Zealand linked to late-Holocene climate change". The Holocene. 28 (7): 1093–1106. Bibcode:2018Holoc..28.1093N. doi:10.1177/0959683618761545. ISSN   0959-6836.
  20. 1 2 Taonga, New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu. "1. – History – Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand". teara.govt.nz. Retrieved 2018-12-17.
  21. ↑ Pool, Ian (2013-10-01). Te Iwi Maori: Population Past, Present and Projected. Auckland University Press. ISBN   9781869406899.
  22. ↑ Brewis, Alexandra A.; Molloy, Maureen A.; Sutton, Douglas G. (1990). "Modeling the prehistoric Maori population". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 81 (3): 343–356. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330810304. ISSN   1096-8644. PMID   2183629.
  23. ↑ Penny, David; Hatfield, Peter J.; Scrimshaw, Brian J.; Murray-McIntosh, Rosalind P. (1998-07-21). "Testing migration patterns and estimating founding population size in Polynesia by using human mtDNA sequences". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 95 (15): 9047–9052. Bibcode:1998PNAS...95.9047M. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.15.9047. ISSN   1091-6490. PMC   21200 . PMID   9671802.
  24. ↑ Bunce, Michael; Beavan, Nancy R.; Oskam, Charlotte L.; Jacomb, Christopher; Allentoft, Morten E.; Holdaway, Richard N. (2014-11-07). "An extremely low-density human population exterminated New Zealand moa". Nature Communications. 5: 5436. Bibcode:2014NatCo...5E5436H. doi:10.1038/ncomms6436. ISSN   2041-1723. PMID   25378020.
  25. 1 2 Burtenshaw, M. K.; Harris, G. F.; Davidson, J.; Leach, F. (2003). "Experimental growing of pre-European cultivators of umara (sweet potato, Ipomoea Batatas [L.] Lam) at the southern margins of Maori horticulture". New Zealand Journal of Archaeology. 23: 161–188.
  26. ↑ Taonga, New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu. "1. – Kūmara – Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand". teara.govt.nz. Retrieved 2018-12-17.
  27. ↑ Winkler, Stefan (2000). "The 'Little Ice Age' maximum in the Southern Alps, New Zealand: preliminary results at Mueller Glacier". The Holocene. 10 (5): 643–647. Bibcode:2000Holoc..10..643W. doi:10.1191/095968300666087656 . Retrieved 27 June 2010.
  28. ↑ "Census: 1871–1916". archive.stats.govt.nz. Retrieved 2018-12-20.
  29. 1 2 3 Anderson, Atholl (2016). "The making of the Maori middle ages". Journal of New Zealand Studies (23): 2.
  30. ↑ Leach, B. Foss (1981). "The prehistory of the Southern Wairarapa". Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand. 11 (1): 11–33. doi:10.1080/03036758.1981.10419449. ISSN   0303-6758.
  31. ↑ Hodos, Tamar (2016-11-18). The Routledge Handbook of Archaeology and Globalization. Taylor & Francis. ISBN   9781315448992.
  32. ↑ Pearce, F. M.; Pearce, Charles E. M. (2010-06-17). Dating the Last Migration to New Zealand. ISBN   9789048138265.
  33. ↑ Marshall, Bruce; MacDonald, Judith; Fyfe, Roger; Findlater, Amy; Davidson, Janet (2011). "Connections with Hawaiki: the Evidence of a Shell Tool from Wairau Bar, Marlborough, New Zealand". Journal of Pacific Archaeology. 2 (2): 93–102. ISSN   1179-4712.
  34. ↑ Bowron-Muth, Sreymony; Jacomb, Chris; Walter, Richard (2010). "Colonisation, mobility and exchange in New Zealand prehistory". Antiquity. 84 (324): 497–513. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00066734. ISSN   1745-1744.
  35. ↑ Goff, James R.; McFadgen, Bruce G. (2003). "Large earthquakes and the abandonment of prehistoric coastal settlements in 15th century New Zealand". Geoarchaeology. 18 (6): 609–623. doi:10.1002/gea.10082. ISSN   0883-6353.
  36. ↑ "Prehistoric settlement". Manaaki Whenua - Landcare Research. Retrieved 2018-12-17.
  37. ↑ Perry, George L. W.; Wilmshurst, Janet M.; McGlone, Matt S.; Napier, Aaron (2012). "Reconstructing spatial vulnerability to forest loss by fire in pre-historic New Zealand". Global Ecology and Biogeography. 21 (10): 1029–1041. doi:10.1111/j.1466-8238.2011.00745.x. ISSN   1466-8238.
  38. ↑ Jacomb, C.; Holdaway, R. N. (2000-03-24). "Rapid Extinction of the Moas (Aves: Dinornithiformes): Model, Test, and Implications". Science. 287 (5461): 2250–2254. Bibcode:2000Sci...287.2250H. doi:10.1126/science.287.5461.2250. ISSN   1095-9203. PMID   10731144.
  39. ↑ "New Zealand Archaeology". Antiquity. 37 (145): 65–68. 1961. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00106155. ISSN   1745-1744.
  40. ↑ Ritchie, Neville A. (1991). "An Introduction to Historical Archaeology in New Zealand on JSTOR". Australian Journal of Historical Archaeology. 9: 3–5. JSTOR   29543280.
  41. ↑ Smith, IAN W.G (1991). "The Development of Historical Archaeology in New Zealand 1921 - 1990 on JSTOR". Australian Journal of Historical Archaeology. 9: 6–13. JSTOR   29543281.
  42. ↑ Petchey, Peter (2015-02-22). "Evidence of the Working of Greenstone by Taranaki Maori Prisoners in the Dunedin Gaol". Journal of Pacific Archaeology. 6 (1): 70–79. ISSN   1179-4712.
  43. ↑ Bedford, Stuart (1996). "POST-CONTACT MAORI—THE IGNORED COMPONENT IN NEW ZEALAND ARCHAEOLOGY on JSTOR". The Journal of the Polynesian Society. 105 (4): 411–439. JSTOR   20706681.
  44. 1 2 McLintock, Alexander Hare; Lawrence James Paul, B. SC; Taonga, New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu. "ARCHAEOLOGY". An encyclopaedia of New Zealand, edited by A. H. McLintock, 1966. Retrieved 2018-12-20.
  45. ↑ "About Us". NZ Archaeological Association. Retrieved 2018-12-20.
  46. ↑ Jones, Ben (2017). "High Resolution LiDAR data for Landscape Archaeology in New Zealand". Archaeology in New Zealand. 60: 35–47.
  47. ↑ Bickler and Low (2007). "Lies, damned lies and geophysics": Uses and abuses of remote sensing techniques in New Zealand heritage management". Archaeol. NZ (50): 195–210.
  48. ↑ "About the Register". Heritage New Zealand . Retrieved 19 November 2018.
  49. ↑ jamie.morton@nzherald.co.nz @Jamienzherald, Jamie Morton Science Reporter, NZ Herald (2013-02-19). "Rock art needs protection: expert". NZ Herald. ISSN   1170-0777 . Retrieved 2018-12-18.
  50. ↑ Tiffany, James-Lee; Ian, Smith (2010). "Data for an Archaeozoological Analysis of Marine Resource Use in Two New Zealand Study Areas (Revised edition)". Department of Anthropology & Archaeology; University of Otago.
  51. ↑ "Huriawa Peninsula". Register of Historic Places. Heritage New Zealand.
  52. ↑ Hamilton, H. (1925). "THE KAINGAROA CARVINGS on JSTOR". The Journal of the Polynesian Society. 34 (4(136)): 356–362. JSTOR   20702052.
  53. ↑ Davidson, Janet (1978). "THE PREHISTORY OF MOTUTAPU ISLAND, NEW ZEALAND FIVE CENTURIES OF POLYNESIAN OCCUPATION IN A CHANGING LANDSCAPE on JSTOR". The Journal of the Polynesian Society. 87 (4): 327–337. JSTOR   20705369.
  54. ↑ "Rock art exposure in South Canterbury". sites.rootsweb.com. Retrieved 2018-12-21.
  55. ↑ "Search the List | Opihi Rock Art | Heritage New Zealand". www.heritage.org.nz. Retrieved 2018-12-22.
  56. ↑ Scarlett, R. J. (1974). "Moa and man in New Zealand" (PDF). Notornis. 21: 1–12.
  57. ↑ Anderson, Atholl; Smith, Ian (1992). "THE PAPATOWAI SITE: NEW EVIDENCE AND INTERPRETATIONS on JSTOR". The Journal of the Polynesian Society. 101 (2): 129–158. JSTOR   20706442.
  58. ↑ "Bone Diagenesis and Radiocarbon Dating of Fish Bones at the Shag River Mouth Site, New Zealand". Journal of Archaeological Science. 27 (2): 135–150. 2000-02-01. doi:10.1006/jasc.1999.0446. ISSN   0305-4403.
  59. ↑ Higham, T.F.G; Horn, P.L (2000-05-01). "Seasonal Dating Using Fish Otoliths: Results from the Shag River Mouth Site, New Zealand". Journal of Archaeological Science. 27 (5): 439–448. doi:10.1006/jasc.1999.0473. ISSN   0305-4403.
  60. ↑ Best, Elsdon (1927). The pa maori: an account of the fortified villages of the Maori in pre-European and modern times; illustrating methods of defence by means of ramparts, fosses, scraps and stockades. Printed by Whitcombe and Tombs.
  61. ↑ Brooks, Walter, Jacomb, E R C (2011). "History of Excavations at Wairau Bar" (PDF). researchgate.net. Retrieved 2018-12-17.


This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.