Pacific herring

Last updated

Pacific herring
Clupea pallasii pallasii.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Clupeiformes
Family: Clupeidae
Genus: Clupea
Species:
C. pallasii
Binomial name
Clupea pallasii
Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1847
Clupea pallasii pallasii mapa.svg

The Pacific herring (Clupea pallasii) is a species of the herring family associated with the Pacific Ocean environment of North America and northeast Asia. It is a silvery fish with unspined fins and a deeply forked caudal fin. The distribution is widely along the California coast from Baja California north to Alaska and the Bering Sea; in Asia the distribution is south to Japan, Korea, and China. Clupea pallasii is considered a keystone species because of its very high productivity and interactions with many predators and prey. Pacific herring spawn in variable seasons, but often in the early part of the year in intertidal and sub-tidal environments, commonly on eelgrass, seaweed [2] or other submerged vegetation; however, they do not die after spawning, but can breed in successive years. According to government sources, the Pacific herring fishery collapsed in the year 1993, and is slowly recovering to commercial viability in several North American stock areas. [3] The species is named for Peter Simon Pallas, a noted German naturalist and explorer.

Contents

There are disjunct populations of Clupea pallasii in North-East Europe, which are often attributed to separate subspecies Clupea pallasii marisalbi (White Sea herring) and Clupea pallasii suworowi (Chosha herring).

Morphology

Pacific herring have a bluish-green back and silver-white sides and bellies; they are otherwise unmarked. The silvery color derives from guanine crystals embedded in their laterals, leading to an effective camouflage phenomenon. There is a single dorsal fin located mid-body and a deeply forked tail-fin. Their bodies are compressed laterally, and ventral scales protrude in a somewhat serrated fashion. Unlike other genus members, they have no scales on heads or gills; [4] moreover, their scales are large and easy to extract. This species of fish may attain a length of 45 centimeters in exceptional cases and weigh up to 550 grams, but a typical adult size is closer to 33 centimeters. The fish interior is quite bony with oily flesh.

This species has no teeth on the jawline, but some are exhibited on the vomer. Pacific herring have an unusual retinal morphology that allows filter feeding in extremely dim lighting environments. This species is capable of rapid vertical motion, due to the existence of a complex nerve receptor system design that connects to the gas bladder. [5]

Life cycle

Juvenile fish Clupea pallasii by OpenCage.jpg
Juvenile fish

Pacific herring prefer spawning locations in sheltered bays and estuaries. Along the American Pacific Coast, some of the principal areas are San Francisco Bay, Richardson Bay, Tomales Bay and Humboldt Bay. Adult males and females make their way from the open ocean to bays and coves around November or December, although in the far north of the range, these dates may be somewhat later. Conditions that trigger spawning are not altogether clear, but after spending weeks congregating in the deeper channels, both males and females will begin to enter shallower inter-tidal or sub-tidal waters. Submerged vegetation, especially eelgrass, is a preferred substrate for oviposition. A single female may lay as many as 20,000 eggs in one spawn following ventral contact with submerged substrates. However, the juvenile survival rate is only about one resultant adult per ten thousand eggs, due to high predation by numerous other species.

The precise staging of spawning is not understood, although some researchers suggest the male initiates the process by release of milt, which has a pheromone that stimulates the female to begin oviposition. The behavior seems to be collective so that an entire school may spawn in the period of a few hours, producing an egg density of up to 6,000,000 eggs per square meter. [6] The fertilized spherical eggs, measuring 1.2 to 1.5 millimeters in diameter, incubate for approximately ten days in estuarine waters that are about 10 degrees Celsius. Eggs and juveniles are subject to heavy predation.

Fisheries

Global capture of Pacific herring in tonnes reported by the FAO, 1950-2009 Fisheries capture of Clupea pallasii.png
Global capture of Pacific herring in tonnes reported by the FAO, 1950–2009

Pacific herring fisheries (fishing grounds) had been sustainably exploited by indigenous people for millennia, not only in the Pacific Coasts of North America, but in Japan, and Russian Far East, and in all these cases, industrial fishing for herring oil and fertilizer encroached or seized these fishing areas, leading to collapses in the fish stock. [8]

The Ainu of Ezo (now Hokkaido) had caught herring using basic dip nets (hand nets) [lower-alpha 1] but Japanese fishermen during the late Edo Period into Meiji Era began to operate increasingly large-scaled capture of herring in these grounds, first using gillnets and later "pound nets" (or traps). [9] [10] [12] Intensive fishing resulted in the so-called "Million-Ton Era" of the late nineteenth century onward, [14] Herring fishery near Japan (Hokkaido) collapsed in the late 1950s. [9] [15]

Much like Japan, commercial herring fisheries in Alaska, US, and British Columbia underwent the phase of § Reduction fishery (for fertilizer and oil), and when Japanese herring fleets suffered scarcity in the late 1950s, North American fisheries began to cater to the Japanese market especially for the herring roe (§ Roe fishery; § Spawn on kelp fishery), known in Japan as § kazunoko. Alaska Department of Fish and Game has managed Alaskan resources and issues quota has released their biomass estimate figures since 1975, but the figures remain highly volatile. [16]

Herring has long been fished by First Nations on the Central Coast of British Columbia, and elsewhere. In 1997 the Supreme Court of Canada rendered its decision in the Gladstone decision (R. v. Gladstone)- recognizing a pre-existing aboriginal right to herring that includes a commercial component to the Heiltsuk Nation.

Due to overfishing, [17] the total North American Pacific herring fishery collapsed in 1993, and is slowly recovering with active management by North American resource managers. In various sub-areas the Pacific herring fishery collapsed at slightly differing times; for example, the Pacific herring fishery in Richardson Bay collapsed in 1983. [18] The species has been re-appearing in harvestable numbers in a number of North American fisheries including San Francisco Bay, Richardson Bay, Tomales Bay, Half Moon Bay, Humboldt Bay all in California, and Sitka Sound, Alaska. In other areas, such as Auke Bay, Alaska, which in the late 1970s was the largest harvestable stock of herring in Alaska, the species remains severely depleted. [19]

Pacific herring are currently harvested commercially for bait and for roe. Past commercial uses included fish oil and fish meal. [19]

Reduction fishery

The Alaskan herring industry began in 1880s as "reduction" plants which processed herrings into fish meal and oil, with the meal utilized mostly as animal fodder or fertilizer, [20] and the oil mostly for soap. [21] Since it began the reduction in 1882 until around 1917, the business was a practical monopoly of the North West Trading Company which established its processing plant at Killisnoo, Alaska. [22] The use of "Norwegian method" of catching using oar-propelled seine boats did continue until 1923 here, but was being supplanted by the purse seine (purse seiner  [ de ]) introduced into herring fishery around after 1900. [23]

Concerns had developed regarding this practice as early as the 1900s, regarding localized fish stock depletion, adverse food chain effects on commercially valuable fish types that prey on herring, and the ethics of taking fish for purposes other than human food or bait, [24] But the industry persisted in Alaska until it ceased operations in 1966. [25]

In Canada, the earliest recorded catches were for the purpose of producing dry-salted herring, starting around 1904, peaking around the 1920s, [lower-alpha 2] but declining to initial catch tonnages by 1934 due to sagging demand. [26] Reduction (fertilizer) fishing operated in Canada during the years 1935–1967. The end was due to the collapse of the fish population. [26]

Roe fishery

Just as the reduction industry was phasing out in Alaska in the 1960s, there emerged an alternate industry to exploit herring in another way, i.e., harvesting only the "roe sacs" ("egg skein") inside the females, to meet the Japanese demand for " kazunoko ". [lower-alpha 3] [25] A similar shift took from the defunct reduction fishing took place in Canada: after the herring population recovered somewhat, a Canadian roe fishery industry sprang up in 1971 to cater to the Japanese market. [30] [lower-alpha 4] ).

A commercially viable product demands the eggs to be "ripe", or swollen to the right size, which only occurs within a few days of spawning, and there is a narrow window for the catch. [30] [34] Accordingly, the season is very short, a matter of days: it lasted all of 90 minutes in the April 1975 season. [34] [35]

These egg skeins need to retain perfection of shape to fetch highest value, and to that end, the fish are frozen or brine-frozen then rethawed in freshwater before extracting the egg skeins. [35]

Spawn on kelp fishery

Shoals of herring during the reproductive season lay clusters of eggs on kelp and other seaweed, [lower-alpha 5] [lower-alpha 6] and the seasonal collection has been a time-honored traditional practice among the natives of Pacific Coast of Alaska and Canada, [39] [40] witnessed and recorded in the 18th and 19th centuries, [44] and has been traded [39] and a trade item. [42] The natives traditionally foraged wild-grown eggs on various seaweed, or laid on introduced hemlock branches, [43] [45] .

The Japanese market for kazunoko kombu (数の子コンブ, 'herring roe kelp') or (子持ちコンブ, 'child holding kelp') is best served, so it has been claimed, by preferably using products laid on giant kelp ( Macrocystis pyrifera ), which only grew in Southeast Alaska [46] [lower-alpha 7] or down in Canada. [lower-alpha 8] [lower-alpha 9]

[lower-alpha 10] commercial harvest of wild-caught roe began in that region at Craig/ Craig/ Klawock [lower-alpha 11] , in 1959 [lower-alpha 12] [52] Export to Japan began 1962. [lower-alpha 13] So that in wild foraging surged at Craig/Klawock 1963, burgeoned in Sitka in 1964, and at a third site at Hydaburg in 1966 were harvesting in southeast Alaska: [53] overfilling their 250 tons quota in 1966. [55] The season had to be drastically shortened or canceled due to depletion from the following year. [56]

Transplanting and impounding kelp

In 1960 and 1961 "open-pounds", stocked with kelp to lure herring egg-laying, were operated in the town of Craig, on Prince of Wales Island, probably for the first time in Alaska. [53] But afterwards, intensified harvest led to closure of season, and it was not until 1992 that harvest of semi-farmed eggs on kelp in closed-pounds resumed. [57]

The shortage of spawn led to seeking new harvesting grounds in areas where giant kelp do not naturally grow, and demand and harvest developed for eggs on alternate seaweeds, such as Desmarestia sp. or "hair seaweed". [lower-alpha 5] [57] Amidst the 1968 shortage, commercial collection of spawn of Fucus began, [lower-alpha 6] in Bristol Bay, east of Togiak. [58] And in 1959 spawn from various algae began to be commercially collect from Prince William Sound, peaking in 1975, ending with the depletion of the "kelp". [58] [lower-alpha 9]

During the shortage, an enterprising operator experimented with transplanting "unused" kelp from remoter areas into kelp-depleted spawning grounds, or into eelgrass territory. He sometimes attached kelp cut elsewhere to barges he owned. [54]

In Canada, "impoundments" began to be used, whereby floating enclosures at sea are stocked with kelp, mature herring are introduced, and the egg-deposited kelp to be later harvest. Canada issued their first licenses in 1975, initially about half to indigenous operators, in Northern British Columbia. [30] The enclosure ("closed pounds") technique was subsequently copied by Alaskans. [59] The "impoundments" or "closed ponds" consisted of a square (wooden) frame holding a pocket of "suspended webbing" as enclosure space. Inside, rows of kelp are hung on strings. [30] [59] [61]

Decline

Alaska's principal areas for roe fishery, according to the 2022 season allotted tonnage were: Sitka Sound (late March) 45,164 short tons (90,000,000 lb), Kodiak Island (April 1) 8,075 short tons (16,000,000 lb), and Togiak [lower-alpha 14] (May) 65,107 short tons (130,000,000 lb). However the allowed quotas were hardly expected to be filled, given the drastic downturn in Japanese demand. During the heydays of the 1990s, the pre-spawn herring commanded $1000 per ton, yielding a gross $60 million to fisherman, but by 2020 the tally fell to a $5 million figure. [63] In 2023, the last roe processing plant in Togiak indicated it would not be purchasing herring, and the season was cancelled. [64]

Conservation

On April 2, 2007, the Juneau group of the Sierra Club submitted a petition to list Pacific herring in the Lynn Canal, Alaska, area as a threatened or endangered distinct population segment under the criteria of the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA). [65] On April 11, 2008, that petition was denied because the Lynn Canal population was not found to qualify as a distinct population segment. However, the National Marine Fisheries Service did announce would be initiating a status review for a wider Southeast Alaska distinct population segment of Pacific herring that includes the Lynn Canal population. [66] The Southeast Alaska DPS of Pacific herring extends from Dixon Entrance northward to Cape Fairweather and Icy Point and includes all Pacific herring stocks in Southeast Alaska.

On February 5, 2018, researchers at Western Washington University began researching causes for the decline in Pacific herring populations in the Puget Sound; a prominent speculated reason is the loss of eelgrass, an important spawning substrate for the herring. [67]

Kazunoko

The herring egg roe or "egg skein", called kazunoko had traditionally commanded a good price in Japanese markets, and the herring roe fishery and processing industry (especially in Alaska), geared towards export to that country, has been described above under § Roe fishery.

As for the culinary aspects, the kazunoko merchandized in Japan primarily fall into either hoshi kazunoko (塩数の子, 'dried kazunko') or shio kazunoko (干し数の子, 'dried kazunko'). [68] There is also a lower-grade substitute [71] called shio kazunoko (味付け数の子, 'dried kazunko'), [32] made from Atlantic herring roe (which is considered a softer or "less crunchy" in texture). [32] [33] [69] [lower-alpha 15]

The roe is eaten mostly as the New Year's fare, [72] called osechi , consisting of an assortment of symbolically propitious foods, with herring representing fertility (production of many children). [73] [74]

Notes

  1. ↑ And possibly, seine nets.
  2. ↑ The initial catch tonnage was at around 30,000t per year. Introduction purse seine to Canadian herring fishing occurred in 1913, but the catch tonnage remained flat for some years until it rose to 85,000 tons in 1919–1927.
  3. ↑ Small-scale roe fishery about 1 ton operated in Alaska in 1961 and 1963 at Resurrection Bay and lower Cook Inlet, but more serious operations commenced in 1964 in Sitka at Sitka Sound, Spiridon Bay on Kodiak Island, and Unalakleet (Norton Sound), [27] In Togiak, roe fishery began experimentally in 1967 but greatly expanded 1977 onward to become the major site of the roe fishery haul. [28] [29]
  4. ↑ After Alaska, various other regions began competing for the market: California, British Columbia (Canada), eastern Canada, Russia, South Korea, China, Scotland (UK), Ireland, Netherlands. [31] Eastern Canadian and European fisheries of course harvest Atlantic herring roe, which is considered a softer (less crunchy), and are processed as "flavored kazunoko (ajitsuke kazunoko)" which are surrogates for standard "salted kazunoko. [32] [33] (More details under § Kazunoko below
  5. 1 2 Even if not strictly "kelp" (large members of order Laminariales), the seaweed may still be called a type of "kelp" by locals or the local industry, thus Desmarestia aka "hair kelp" according to Mackviak [36] and some Alaska DFS writers, [37] though a paper form other researchers of the Department dated later refer use "hair seaweed" identified as Desmarestia viridis , [38] though in the local vocabulary list they gloss Tlingit ne} as "hair kelp" [38]
  6. 1 2 Another egg host algae, Fucussp., is called "rockweed", [36] [37] and is not strictly "kelp" either (also different ordo), but the collectors are still called "kelpers" and the product "roe on kelp", even if Fucus is mainly targeted in Bristol Bay. [37]
  7. ↑ e.g. Hydaburg, [43] Prince Wales Island and Sitka described below.
  8. ↑ However, the premium kombu kelp of Japanese cuisine derives from makombu, now listed as Saccharina latissima but formerly known as Laminaria saccharina, common name "sugar wrack", surveyed as growing in Prince William Sound. [47]
  9. 1 2 The statement that at Prince William Sound "ribbon kelp (Laminaria sp.) was the most desirable native species" [43] is problematic, since Laminaria could conceivably refer to the aforementioned Japanese true kombu or "sugar wrack", whereas "ribbon kelp" is a common name for two other alga, namely Nereocystis luetkeana aka "bull kelp" and Alaria marginata , [48] but herring do not lay egg on "bull kelp" [49] while the latter was explained by Charles F. Newcombe (1901) as occasionally harvested with spawn and eaten by the Haida. [50]
  10. ↑ After Japanese expressed interest in Alaskan herring roe and egg on kelp in 1958 as alternate sourcing. [51]
  11. ↑ On Prince of Wales Island, neighboring Canada.
  12. ↑ 107,900 pounds (48,942.617 kg) were collected using grappling hooks.
  13. ↑ According to federal statistics at the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries. The Japanese presumably approached Alaskans in 1958 seeking herring roe. As to who the buyers were in the meanwhile before 1962, there is an anecdote of a Japanese-American Harry Yoshimura's family proprietorship making a purchase. [46]
  14. ↑ Both purse seiners and gillnetting are involved. [62] [29]
  15. ↑ Atlantic roe is otherwise made into processed foods [33] or sōzai ( 惣菜 , 'side dishes') [70]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Salmon</span> Commercially important migratory fish

Salmon is the common name for several commercially important species of euryhaline ray-finned fish from the genera Salmo and Oncorhynchus of the family Salmonidae, native to tributaries of the North Atlantic (Salmo) and North Pacific (Oncorhynchus) basins. Other closely related fish in the same family include trout, char, grayling, whitefish, lenok and taimen, all coldwater fish of the subarctic and cooler temperate regions with some sporadic endorheic populations in Central Asia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Clupeidae</span> Family of fishes

Clupeidae is a family of clupeiform ray-finned fishes, comprising, for instance, the herrings and sprats. Many members of the family have a body protected with shiny cycloid scales, a single dorsal fin, and a fusiform body for quick, evasive swimming and pursuit of prey composed of small planktonic animals. Due to their small size and position in the lower trophic level of many marine food webs, the levels of methylmercury they bioaccumulate are very low, reducing the risk of mercury poisoning when consumed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Herring</span> Forage fish, mostly belonging to the family Clupeidae

Herring are forage fish, mostly belonging to the family of Clupeidae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Atlantic herring</span> Species of fish

Atlantic herring is a herring in the family Clupeidae. It is one of the most abundant fish species in the world. Atlantic herrings can be found on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean, congregating in large schools. They can grow up to 45 centimetres (18 in) in length and weigh up to 1.1 kilograms (2.4 lb). They feed on copepods, krill and small fish, while their natural predators are seals, whales, cod and other larger fish.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Roe</span> Egg masses of fish and seafood

Roe, or hard roe, is the fully ripe internal egg masses in the ovaries, or the released external egg masses, of fish and certain marine animals such as shrimp, scallop, sea urchins and squid. As a seafood, roe is used both as a cooked ingredient in many dishes, and as a raw ingredient for delicacies such as caviar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bristol Bay</span> Bay near southwest Alaska

Bristol Bay is the easternmost arm of the Bering Sea, at 57° to 59° North 157° to 162° West in Southwest Alaska. Bristol Bay is 400 km (250 mi) long and 290 km (180 mi) wide at its mouth. A number of rivers flow into the bay, including the Cinder, Egegik, Igushik, Kvichak, Meshik, Nushagak, Naknek, Togiak, and Ugashik.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chum salmon</span> Species of fish

The chum salmon, also known as dog salmon or keta salmon, is a species of anadromous salmonid fish from the genus Oncorhynchus native to the coastal rivers of the North Pacific and the Beringian Arctic, and is often marketed under the trade name silverbrite salmon in North America. The English name "chum salmon" comes from the Chinook Jargon term tzum, meaning "spotted" or "marked"; while keta in the scientific name comes from Russian, which in turn comes from the Evenki language of Eastern Siberia. The term 'Dog Salmon' is most commonly used in Alaska and refers to the Salmon whose flesh Alaskans use to feed their dogs.

<i>Matsumaezuke</i> Pickled dish from Matsumae, Hokkaidō, Japan

Matsumaezuke (松前漬け) is a pickled dish of dried squid and kelp, native to Hokkaidō, Japan, named in reference to the Matsumae clan which once governed the region, then known as Ezo.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">American shad</span> Species of fish

The American shad is a species of anadromous clupeid fish naturally distributed on the North American coast of the North Atlantic, from Newfoundland to Florida, and as an introduced species on the North Pacific coast. The American shad is not closely related to the other North American shads. Rather, it seems to form a lineage that diverged from a common ancestor of the European taxa before these diversified.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pink salmon</span> Species of fish

Pink salmon or humpback salmon is a species of euryhaline ray-finned fish in the family Salmonidae. It is the type species of the genus Oncorhynchus, and is the smallest and most abundant of the seven officially recognized species of salmon. The species' scientific name is based on the Russian common name for this species gorbúša (горбуша), which literally means humpie.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lingcod</span> Species of fishes

The lingcod or ling cod, also known as the buffalo cod or cultus cod, is a fish of the greenling family Hexagrammidae. It is the only extant member of the genus Ophiodon. A slightly larger, extinct species, Ophiodon ozymandias, is known from fossils from the Late Miocene of Southern California.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tlingit cuisine</span> Tlingit cuisine

The food of the Tlingit people, an indigenous group of people from Alaska, British Columbia, and the Yukon, is a central part of Tlingit culture, and the land is an abundant provider. A saying amongst the Tlingit is that "When the tide goes out the table is set." This refers to the richness of intertidal life found on the beaches of Southeast Alaska, most of which can be harvested for food. Another saying is that "in Lingít Aaní you have to be an idiot to starve". Since food is so easy to gather from the beaches, a person who cannot feed himself at least enough to stay alive is considered a fool, perhaps mentally incompetent or suffering from very bad luck. Though eating off the beach could provide a fairly healthy and varied diet, eating nothing but "beach food" is considered contemptible among the Tlingit, and a sign of poverty. Shamans and their families were required to abstain from all food gathered from the beach, and men might avoid eating beach food before battles or strenuous activities in the belief that it would weaken them spiritually and perhaps physically as well. Thus for both spiritual reasons as well as to add some variety to the diet, the Tlingit harvest many other resources for food besides what they easily find outside their front doors. No other food resource receives as much emphasis as salmon; however, seal and game are both close seconds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Herring as food</span> Type of fish used as food for humans

Herring are forage fish in the wild, mostly belonging to the family Clupeidae. They are an important food for humans. Herring often move in large schools around fishing banks and near the coast. The most abundant and commercially important species belong to the genus Clupea, found particularly in shallow, temperate waters of the North Pacific and North Atlantic Oceans, including the Baltic Sea, as well as off the west coast of South America. Three species of Clupea are recognized; the main taxon, the Atlantic herring, accounts for over half the world's commercial capture of herrings.

<i>Clupea</i> Genus of fishes

Clupea is genus of planktivorous bony fish belonging to the family Clupeidae, commonly known as herrings. They are found in the shallow, temperate waters of the North Pacific and the North Atlantic oceans, including the Baltic Sea. Two main species of Clupea are currently recognized: the Atlantic herring and the Pacific herring, which have each been divided into subspecies. Herrings are forage fish moving in vast schools, coming in spring to the shores of Europe and America, where they form important commercial fisheries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Japanese sandfish</span> Species of fish

The Japanese sandfish, also known as the sailfin sandfish, is a species of fish of the Percomorpha (perch-like) clade in the order Trachiniformes, being one of the two genera in the family Trichodontidae, the sandfishes. Known in Japan as hatahata, it is a commercially important fish especially for Akita and Yamagata prefectures. Its habitat occurs in sandy-mud bottoms ranging from the Sea of Japan to the Okhotsk Sea.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yupʼik cuisine</span> Culinary traditions of Yupik people

Yup'ik cuisine refers to the Eskimo style traditional subsistence food and cuisine of the Yup'ik people from the western and southwestern Alaska. Also known as Cup'ik cuisine for the Chevak Cup'ik dialect speaking Eskimos of Chevak and Cup'ig cuisine for the Nunivak Cup'ig dialect speaking Eskimos of Nunivak Island. This cuisine is traditionally based on meat from fish, birds, sea and land mammals, and normally contains high levels of protein. Subsistence foods are generally considered by many to be nutritionally superior superfoods. Yup’ik diet is different from Alaskan Inupiat, Canadian Inuit, and Greenlandic diets. Fish as food are primary food for Yup'ik Eskimos. Both food and fish called neqa in Yup'ik. Food preparation techniques are fermentation and cooking, also uncooked raw. Cooking methods are baking, roasting, barbecuing, frying, smoking, boiling, and steaming. Food preservation methods are mostly drying and less often frozen. Dried fish is usually eaten with seal oil. The ulu or fan-shaped knife is used for cutting up fish, meat, food, and such.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pacific spiny lumpsucker</span> Species of fish

The Pacific spiny lumpsucker is a species of bony fish in the family Cyclopteridae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kazunoko</span> Herring roe

Kazunoko (数の子), in Japanese cuisine, are the eggs or the ovaries of the Pacific herring that have been salted or dried.

References

Citations
  1. ↑ Gustafson, R.; Sandell, T.; Cleary, J. (2019). "Clupea pallasii". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2019: e.T98471199A98845541. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T98471199A98845541.en . Retrieved 25 March 2024.
  2. ↑ Herring Spawn on Kelp Photo Archived 2014-04-26 at the Wayback Machine
  3. ↑ Alaska Fisheries 1998 study Archived 2006-10-14 at the Wayback Machine
  4. ↑ Roger A. Barnhart, Species Profile: Life Histories and Environmental Requirements of Coastal Fishes and Invertebrates (Pacific Southwest): Pacific Herring , pp. 1–8, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, February, 1988
  5. ↑ J.H.S. Blaxter, The Herring: a Successful Fish?, Journal of Canadian Journal of Fish. Aquatic Sci.(suppl. 1) 42:21-30 (1985)
  6. ↑ J.D. Spratt, The Pacific herring resource of San Francisco and Tomales Bays: Its size and structure, California Department of Fish and Game Marine Research Tech. 33, 44p (1976)
  7. ↑ Clupea pallasii (Valenciennes, 1847) FAO, Species Fact Sheet. Retrieved April 2012.
  8. ↑ Thornton & Moss (2021), p. 30.
  9. 1 2 Thornton & Moss (2021), p. 19.
  10. 1 2 3 Yokoyama, Satoshi [in Japanese] (2013). Seaweeds: Edible, Available, and Sustainable資源と生業の地理学. Kaiseisha press. pp. 111–112. ISBN   9784860992743.} (in Japanese)
  11. ↑ "Japanese Fishery". The Japan Magazine. 2 (3): 147. July 1911., cont. August 1911, Fishery (II) ", pp. 228–232
  12. ↑ Yokoyama provides illustrated comparison of Fig. 4b sashiami or gillnets with two types of pound nets, 4c Yukitsuna ami introduced 1847/c. 1850 (almost End of Edo) and 4d kaku ami c. 1885/1890 (mid-Meiji). [10] [11]
  13. ↑ Cf. Imada, Mitsuo (1991) Nishin gyoka retsuden: hyakumangoku jidai no ninaite tachi ニシン漁家列伝-百万石時代の担い手たち, cited by Yokoyama (2013), p. 133
  14. ↑ Referred to as "Million koku era" in Japanese literature, [13] measuring the catch by traditional volume measure.
  15. ↑ Or decade of the "Showa 30s" (1955~). [10]
  16. ↑ Hebert, KP (2011). "Scuba Diving Surveys Used to Estimate Pacific Herring Egg Deposition in Southeastern Alaska". In: Pollock NW, ed. Diving for Science 2011. Proceedings of the American Academy of Underwater Sciences 30th Symposium. Dauphin Island, AL: AAUS; 2011. Archived from the original on April 15, 2013. Retrieved 2013-04-02.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  17. ↑ Dean, Cornelia (3 November 2006). "Study Sees 'Global Collapse' of Fish Species". New York Times . Retrieved 9 February 2010.
  18. ↑ Patrick Sullivan, Gary Deghi and C. Michael Hogan, Harbor Seal Study for Strawberry Spit, Marin County, California, Earth Metrics file reference 10323, BCDC and County of Marin, January 23, 1989
  19. 1 2 O'Clair, Rita M. and O'Clair, Charles E., "Pacific herring," Southeast Alaska's Rocky Shores: Animals. pg. 343-346. Plant Press: Auke Bay, Alaska (1998). ISBN   0-9664245-0-6
  20. ↑ Mackovjak (2022), p. 19.
  21. ↑ Mackovjak (2022), pp. 19, 25.
  22. ↑ Mackovjak (2022), pp. 21–24.
  23. ↑ Rounsefell (1935), p. 19.
  24. ↑ Mackovjak (2022), pp. 19–20.
  25. 1 2 Mackovjak (2022), p. 20.
  26. 1 2 Hourston & Haegele (1980), pp. 6.
  27. ↑ Mackovjak (2022), pp. 146, 153.
  28. ↑ Mackovjak (2022), pp. 224, 229.
  29. 1 2 Wright & Chythlook (1985), p. 1.
  30. 1 2 3 4 Hourston & Haegele (1980), pp. 6–7.
  31. ↑ Mackovjak (2022), p. 144.
  32. 1 2 3 4 Alaska Sea Grant College Program (2001). Funk, Fritz (ed.). Herring: Expectations for a New Millennium : Proceedings of the Symposium Herring 2000, Expectations for a New Millennium, Anchorage, Alaska, USA, February 23-26, 2000. University of Alaska Sea Grant College Program. p. 725. Atlantic herring roe, which is generally smaller and softer than Pacific herring roe, has never been considered suitable for salted kazunoko. But seeking a substitute for high-priced Pacific roe in the 1980s, processors tried Atlantic roe for flavored kazunoko, and found it acceptable.
  33. 1 2 3 Tomoko, Furukawa (2005). "kazunoko" 数の子 [Pacific herring ovary]. Shokuzai kenkō daijiten食材健康大事典 (in Japanese). Gomyō, Toshiharu (supervising editor). Tübingen: [[[Jiji Press]]. p. 345. ISBN   9784788705616.
  34. 1 2 Mackovjak (2022), p. 148.
  35. 1 2 Bledsoe, Gleyn; Rasco, Barbara (2006). "Ch. 161. Caviar and Fish Roe". In Hui, Yiu H. (ed.). Handbook of Food Science, Technology, and Engineering. CRC Press. p. 161-11. ISBN   978-0-8493-9849-0.
  36. 1 2 Mackovjak (2022), p. 273.
  37. 1 2 3 Blackburn, James E.; Jackson, Peter B. (April 1982), Seasonal Composition and Abundance of Juvenile and Adult Marine Finfish and Crab Species in the Nearshore Zone of Kodiak Island's Eastside during April 1978 through March 1979, p. 412 in Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Assessment Program, Final Report of Principal Investigators, Vol. 54, February 1987, Anchorage, Alaska: US Dept. Comm.
  38. 1 2 Schroeder & Kookesh (1990), pp. 2, 7.
  39. 1 2 Mackovjak (2022), p. 15–17.
  40. ↑ Hourston & Haegele (1980), p. 7.
  41. ↑ Schroeder & Kookesh (1990), p. 4.
  42. 1 2 3 Schroeder & Kookesh (1990), p. 6.
  43. 1 2 3 4 Mackovjak (2022), p. 15.
  44. ↑ Quoted from Étienne Marchand, the Solide expedition of 1790–92; [41] from Aurel Krause visit on April 25, 1882 (1881–82 expedition); [42] and Jefferson Franklin Moser [42] [43]
  45. ↑ Schroeder & Kookesh (1990), pp. 6–7, 18–22.
  46. 1 2 Mackovjak (2022), p. 275.
  47. ↑ Exxon (1991). "Sugar Wrack (Laminaria saccharina)". A Field Guide to Prince William Sound. Exxon Company U.S.A., Arctic Environmental Information and Data Center (Alaska). pp. 6, 7.
  48. ↑ Mouritsen, Ole G. [in Danish] (2013). Seaweeds: Edible, Available, and Sustainable. Translated by Johansen, Mariela. photography by Jonas Drotner Mouritsen. University of Chicago Press. p. 250. ISBN   9780226044538.}
  49. ↑ Springer, Yuri; Hays, Cynthia; Carr, Mark; Mackey, Megan (1 March 2007), Ecology and Management of the Bull Kelp Nereocystis luetkeana: A Synthesis with Recommendations for Future Research (PDF), With assistance from Ms. Jennifer Bloeser, Ecological Management of Kelp Forests in Oregon and Washington, p. 30, citing Dr. Michael S. Stekoll, persona communication, 2006
  50. ↑ Turner (2004), p. 199.
  51. ↑ Mackovjak (2022), p. 274.
  52. ↑ Mackovjak (2022), pp. 273–275.
  53. 1 2 3 Mackovjak (2022), p. 276.
  54. 1 2 Mackovjak (2022), pp. 277–279.
  55. ↑ Alaska Department of Fish and Game set quotas of 100 and 75t each for the others, respectively, [53] and total 274 tons (trimmed weight) was reported for 1966, valued at $600,000, for an open season the lasted only an hour or hour-and-a-half. [54]
  56. ↑ Mackovjak (2022), pp. 279–280.
  57. 1 2 Mackovjak (2022), p. 279.
  58. 1 2 Mackovjak (2022), p. 280.
  59. 1 2 Mackovjak (2022), pp. 281.
  60. ↑ Woodford, Riley (May 2020). "Record Herring Event Highlights Roe on Kelp Fishery". Alaska Fish & Wildlife News. Alaska Department of Fish and Game.
  61. ↑ Cf. Alaska DFG article with photographs. [60]
  62. ↑ Mackovjak (2022), pp. 219–237.
  63. ↑ Welch, Laine (28 March 2022). "As demand for Alaska herring roe plummets, industry seeks markets for the wasted fish". Alaska Dispatch News .
  64. ↑ Ross, Izzy Ross (26 March 2023). "No commercial Togiak sac roe herring fishery this spring, after years of a shrinking market". KDLG . Dillingham.
  65. ↑ "Endangered Species Act". 16 January 2023.
  66. ↑ Announcement of initiation of status review for Southeast Alaska Pacific herring
  67. ↑ "New Puget Sound herring research". Puget Sound Institute. 2018-02-05. Retrieved 2019-09-01.
  68. ↑ OECD: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2009). "Kazunoko". Multilingual Dictionary of Fish and Fish Products. John Wiley & Sons. p. 532. ISBN   9781444319422.
  69. 1 2 "Herring". Seafood Leader. 9 (4): 142. April 1989. The Japanese used to purchase only roe from Pacific.. insurgence of the European herring stocks has led to a secondary market in Atlantic roe.. Atlantic herring roe is generally less crunchy and tangy than Pacific herring roe and so sells for less
  70. 1 2 JETRO (1991). Nōrin suisanbutsu no bōeki: shuyō 100 hinmoku no kokunai・kaigai jijyō農林水産物の貿昜: 主要 100品目の国内・海外事情 (in Japanese). Japan External Trade Organization. pp. 480, 567. 主として味付けかずのこの原料として利用されるにしんの卵は大西洋産、正月の贈答用などに用いられるにしん卵等は太平洋産である
  71. ↑ lower grade, as per "substitute", [32] "secondary market", [69] and the remark that only the Pacific herring roe is considered suitable for New Year's gift-giving in Japan. [70]
  72. ↑ Emami, Ali; Queirolob, Lewis E.; Johnston, Richard (1994), "Monopsony, Trade Restrictions and International Markets for Intermediate Seafood Products. The U.S.-Canada Herring Dispute", in Antona, Martine; Cantanzano, Joseph; Sutinen, John G. (eds.), Proceedings of the Sixth Conference of the International Institute of Fisheries Economics and Trade (PDF), vol. 2, Institut français de recherche pour l'exploitation de la mer, p. 590 n1
  73. ↑ Andreasen, Esben; Rasco, Barbara (1998). Popular Buddhism in Japan: Shin Buddhist Religion and Culture. University of Hawaii Press. p. 170. ISBN   9780824820282. Citing Hazama, D. O.; Komeiji, J. O. (1986) Okage sama De", pp. 263–5
  74. ↑ Mouritsen, Ole G. [in Danish]; Styrbæk, Klavs (2023). Rogn: Meget mere end rogn. Gyldendal A/S. § Frugtbarhed og mange børn. ISBN   9788702392029.(in Danish)
Bibliography

Schroeder, Robert F.; Kookesh, Matthew (January 1990), The Subsistence Harvest of Herring Eggs in Sitka Sound, 1989 (PDF), Technical Paper No. 173, Alaska Department of Fish and Game

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.