Suillus bovinus

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Suillus bovinus
Suillus bovinus 2011 10 07.jpg
Suillus bovinus
Pine woods, Galicia
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Boletales
Family: Suillaceae
Genus: Suillus
Species:
S. bovinus
Binomial name
Suillus bovinus
(L.) Roussel (1806)
Synonyms [1]
  • Boletus bovinusL. (1753)
  • Agaricus bovinus(L.) Lam. (1783)
  • Ixocomus bovinus(L.) Quél. (1888)
  • Mariaella bovina(L.) Šutara (1987)
Suillus bovinus
Information icon.svg
Pores icon.pngPores on hymenium
Convex cap icon.svg Cap is convex
Adnate gills icon2.svgDecurrent gills icon2.svg Hymenium is adnate or decurrent
Bare stipe icon.svg Stipe is bare
Transparent spore print icon.svg
 Spore print is olive-brown
Mycorrhizal fungus.svgEcology is mycorrhizal
Mycomorphbox Choice.pngEdibility is choice

Suillus bovinus, also known as the Jersey cow mushroom or bovine bolete, is a pored mushroom of the genus Suillus in the family Suillaceae. A common fungus native to Europe and Asia, it has been introduced to North America and Australia. It was initially described as Boletus bovinus by Carl Linnaeus in 1753, and given its current binomial name by Henri François Anne de Roussel in 1806. It is an edible mushroom, though not highly regarded.

Contents

The fungus grows in coniferous forests in its native range, and pine plantations in countries where it has become naturalised. It forms symbiotic ectomycorrhizal associations with living trees by enveloping the tree's underground roots with sheaths of fungal tissue, and is sometimes parasitised by the related mushroom Gomphidius roseus . Suillus bovinus produces spore-bearing fruit bodies, often in large numbers, above ground. The mushroom has a convex grey-yellow or ochre cap reaching up to 10 cm (4 in) in diameter, which flattens with age. Like other boletes, it has tubes extending downward from the underside of the cap, rather than gills; spores escape at maturity through the tube openings, or pores. The pore surface is yellow. The stipe, more slender than those of other Suillus boletes, lacks a ring.

Taxonomy and naming

Suillus bovinus was one of the many species first described in 1753 by the "father of taxonomy" Carl Linnaeus, who, in the second volume of his Species Plantarum , gave it the name Boletus bovinus. [2] The specific epithet is derived from the Latin word bos, meaning "cattle". [3] The fungus was reclassified in (and became the type species of) the genus Suillus by French naturalist Henri François Anne de Roussel in 1796. [4] Suillus is an ancient term for fungi, and is derived from the word "swine". [5] Lucien Quélet classified it as Viscipellis bovina in 1886. [6]

In works published before 1987, the species was written fully as Suillus bovinus (L.:Fr.) Kuntze, as the description by Linnaeus had been name sanctioned in 1821 by the "father of mycology", Swedish naturalist Elias Magnus Fries. The description starting date for all the mycota had been set by general agreement as 1 January 1821, the date of Fries's work. Furthermore, as Roussel's description of Suillus predated this as well, the authority for the genus was assigned to Otto Kuntze. The 1987 edition of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature changed the rules on the starting date and primary work for names of fungi, and names can now be considered valid as far back as 1 May 1753, the date of publication of Linnaeus's work. [7]

Common names include Jersey cow mushroom, bovine bolete, [8] and euro cow bolete. [9] One proposed origin for the scientific name is that medieval knights—who revered Tricholoma equestre —considered this mushroom fit only for cattle-drovers as it was not highly valued. [10] The mushroom's colour is similar to that of a Jersey cow. [11]

A limited genetic sampling of species in a 1996 study by Annette Kretzer and colleagues showed Suillus bovinus was related to a lineage that diverged to S. punctipes , S. variegatus and S. tomentosus . [12] A 2001 study found it was not closely related to other European species, and that all populations tested were closer to each other than any other and hence it was a cohesive species. [13]

Czech mycologist Josef Šutara circumscribed the genus Mariaella in 1987, assigning Mariaella bovina as the type species. [14] Mariaella contained Suillus species in section Fungosi. Molecular studies do not support the existence of Mariaella, and so it is considered synonymous with Suillus. [15] Older synonyms for S. bovinus include those resulting from generic transfers to Agaricus by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck in 1783, and the now-obsolete Ixocomus by Lucien Quélet in 1888. [1]

In 1951, Arthur Anselm Pearson described the variety Boletus bovinus var. viridocaerulescens, [16] which was later transferred to Suillus by Rolf Singer in 1961. [17] This variant, collected in Western Cape Province, South Africa, differs from the main form by the staining reaction of the cap flesh, which turns dark or light greenish-blue upon injury. [16] Index Fungorum does not, however, recognize the variety as having independent taxonomic significance. [18]

Chemical analysis of pigments and chromogens showed that Suillus was more closely related to Gomphidius and Rhizopogon than to other boletes, and hence Suillus bovinus and its allies were transferred from the Boletaceae to the newly circumscribed family Suillaceae in 1997. [19] Molecular studies have reinforced how distantly related these fungi are from Boletus edulis and its allies. [20]

Description

Bisected fruit body Suillus bovinus 187483.jpg
Bisected fruit body

The fruit body—colloquially called a mushroom—of Suillus bovinus is a basidiocarp which is smaller and daintier than most other boletes. [10] The cap is initially convex, then flat with a wavy margin and a grey-yellow or ochre with pink tinge in some specimens. It ranges from 3–10 cm (1+1⁄4–4 in) in diameter and has a sticky skin. The flesh is whitish, yellowish or clay-coloured and has a fruity smell. [8] Sometimes turning a pink tinge when bruised, [10] the flesh is spongy and rubbery. [21] Like other boletes, it has pores instead of gills that make up the hymenophore on the underside of the cap. Suillus bovinus has a characteristic compound pore layer, consisting of an outer layer of coarse, angular pores overlaying an inner layer of finer pores. [9] The pores are grey- to olive-yellow and generally decurrent, [8] comprising yellow to olive-yellow tubes that measure 0.3–1 cm (1⁄8–3⁄8 in) long. [9] The stipe is 4–6 cm (1+1⁄2–2+1⁄4 in) tall, similar in colour to the cap, and tends to be narrower towards the base. With a diameter of 0.5–0.8 cm (1⁄4–3⁄8 in), [8] it is more slender than those of other boletes. [10]

Closeup of pore surface Suillus bovinus 187484.jpg
Closeup of pore surface

The spore print is an olive-brown colour. The oval to spindle-shaped spores have dimensions of 8–10 by 3.5–4.5  μm. [8] Basidia (spore-bearing cells) are cylindrical to narrowly club-shaped, measuring 22.4–33.4 by 5.8–8.0 μm. They bear four sterigmata (each holding a single spore), which are up to 6.8 μm long. Cystidia are present on both the tube ends (cheilocystidia) and tube faces (pleurocystidia). There are no clamp connections in the hyphae of Suillus bovinus. The cap cuticle comprises filamentous, gelatinized hyphae with a diameter of 2.6–5.0 μm. [22] The mycelium has a pink tinge. [10]

The distinctive colour of the cap and pores make it hard to confuse with other species. [23] Often found in similar habitats is S. variegatus, though this species has a granular cap and dark olive pores, [21] which are smaller and not decurrent. It can also bruise blue. [10]

Distribution and habitat

Suillus bovinus is found in conifer woods and plantations across Europe, including subalpine regions in the Alps, up to altitudes of 800 m (2500 ft). [23] It is common in Lithuania, where it associates with Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), the only naturally occurring pine in that country. [24] Preferred soils of S. bovinus are often acidic, sand-based, or sometimes calcareous (chalky) and moraine. [25] In Asia, it has been recorded in Taiwan, [26] and in Japan, where it associates with Japanese red pine (Pinus densiflora). [27] In China, it has been recorded from provinces Anhui, Fujian, Guangdong, Hunan, Jiangxi, and Zhejiang. [28]

Suillus bovinus has been introduced into other areas. In North America, where it is thought to have been introduced with Scots pine, it is found in the eastern United States, including North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Vermont, and the Adirondack Mountains of New York. [29] It has been recorded infrequently under Scots pine in Australia, [30] where it has been found as far north as southern Queensland, [31] and in more southerly locations including New South Wales and Kuitpo Forest. [22] It has been recorded in New Zealand. [32] In South Africa, it grows with Pinus radiata . [33]

Ecology

Gomphidius roseus growing alongside Suillus bovinus Suillus bovinus & Gomphidius roseus (amitaketoougitake)Xiao Shan Shi Bei keYue DSCF9456.JPG
Gomphidius roseus growing alongside Suillus bovinus

Suillus bovinus is mycorrhizal, forming symbiotic associations with living trees by enveloping the tree's underground roots with sheaths of fungal tissue. Field work in pine forests in Sweden analysing the population structure of Suillus bovinus found that mushrooms were more abundant in younger forests and forests with disturbed areas, which contained a higher number of genets (colonies)—700 to 5700 per hectare—compared with 30 to 120 genets per hectare in mature stands. Older colonies in mature forests could be 17.5 m (57+1⁄2 ft) in diameter against 1.7–5.3 m (5+1⁄2–17+1⁄2 ft) diameter in young forests. [25] Spore-bearing mushrooms (sporocarps) produce a huge number of spores (estimated in a Finnish study at 240 million to 1.2 billion per mushroom), of which only a small number grow successfully; this large number is thought to explain the larger numbers of colonies in disturbed and young forests, while the fungus' vegetative spread becomes more important in established forests. [34] Colonies of S. bovinus do not overlap, which indicates they suppress each other's growth. [25] The median lifespan of a colony was estimated to be 36 years. [35] Field work conducted in Swedish pine forests suggested that S. variegatus suppressed the growth of S. bovinus, as there was a negative correlation in occurrence. [36]

Suillus bovinus fruit bodies attacked by the yellow mould Dicranophora fulva Suillus bovinus 317261.jpg
Suillus bovinus fruit bodies attacked by the yellow mould Dicranophora fulva

A Finnish study published in 1997 found that bacterial communities under P. sylvestris without mycorrhizae metabolised organic and amino acids, while communities among S. bovinus metabolised mannitol, a sugar alcohol. The mycelia also extended the environment in the soil that the bacteria were able to grow in. [37] An experimental study in Portugal showed that Pinus pinaster trees grew better after being inoculated with mycelium from S. bovinus, Laccaria laccata and Lactarius deterrimus and spores of Pisolithus tinctorius and Scleroderma citrinum . These fungi were proposed as an alternative for chemical fertiliser in arboriculture of pine trees. [38] Suillus bovinus has been shown to improve the tolerance of its host Pinus sylvestris to metal pollutants such as cadmium and zinc, [39] [40] though not to hazardous organic compounds such as m-toluate. [39]

Experimental work in 1986 showed that Suillus bovinus could metabolise proteins and peptides directly, causing a drop in nitrogen in growth media, which suggested the species has some saprophytic activity. [41]

The related rosy spike-cap ( Gomphidius roseus ) is found exclusively with this species, and is now thought to be parasitic upon the mycelium of Suillus bovinus. [42] This is evidenced by microscopic examination, which shows that G. roseus inserts haustoria in plant root cells and does not produce significant mycelium itself. Furthermore, G. roseus is never found growing in isolation, only with S. bovinus though the latter species is found without the former. [42] Dicranophora fulva is a yellow mould that has been found growing on decaying S. bovinus fruit bodies in Europe and the United States. [43]

Edibility

Suillus bovinus tastes mild and is edible, although it is not highly regarded. [10] When cooked, it releases a lot of fluid, which can be collected and reduced or strained to make a sauce. Its flavour is made more intense by drying. [44] The soft and rubbery consistency of older specimens—as well as their proneness to maggot infestation—renders them almost inedible. [10] Fruit bodies are part of the later summer diet of the red squirrel in Eurasia, which collects the mushrooms and stores them in tree forks for a ready food supply after the onset of frost. [45] There are several fly species that often use S. bovinus fruit bodies to rear their young, including Bolitophila rossica , Exechia separata , Exechiopsis indecisa , Pegomya deprimata , and Pegohylemyia silvatica . [46]

Related Research Articles

<i>Suillus</i> Genus of fungi

Suillus is a genus of basidiomycete fungi in the family Suillaceae and order Boletales. Species in the genus are associated with trees in the pine family (Pinaceae), and are mostly distributed in temperate locations in the Northern Hemisphere, although some species have been introduced to the Southern Hemisphere.

<i>Suillus luteus</i> Species of edible fungus in the family Suillaceae native to Eurasia

Suillus luteus is a bolete fungus, and the type species of the genus Suillus. A common fungus native all across Eurasia from Ireland to Korea, it has been introduced widely elsewhere, including North and South America, southern Africa, Australia and New Zealand. Commonly referred to as slippery jack or sticky bun in English-speaking countries, its names refer to the brown cap, which is characteristically slimy in wet conditions. The fungus, initially described as Boletus luteus by Carl Linnaeus in 1753, is now classified in a different fungus family as well as genus. Suillus luteus is edible, though not as highly regarded as other bolete mushrooms. It is commonly prepared and eaten in soups, stews or fried dishes. The slime coating, however, may cause indigestion if not removed before eating. It is often sold as a dried mushroom.

<i>Suillus granulatus</i> Species of fungus

Suillus granulatus is a pored mushroom of the genus Suillus in the family Suillaceae. It is similar to the related S. luteus, but can be distinguished by its ringless stalk. Like S. luteus, it is an edible mushroom that often grows in a symbiosis (mycorrhiza) with pine. It has been commonly known as the weeping bolete, or the granulated bolete. Previously thought to exist in North America, that species has now been confirmed to be the rediscovered Suillus weaverae.

<i>Paxillus involutus</i> Species of fungus

Paxillus involutus, commonly known as the brown roll-rim, common roll-rim is a basidiomycete fungus that is widely distributed across the Northern Hemisphere. It has been inadvertently introduced to Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and South America, probably transported in soil with European trees. Various shades of brown in colour, the fruit body grows up to 6 cm high and has a funnel-shaped cap up to 12 cm wide with a distinctive inrolled rim and decurrent gills that may be pore-like close to the stipe. Although it has gills, it is more closely related to the pored boletes than to typical gilled mushrooms. It was first described by Pierre Bulliard in 1785, and was given its current binomial name by Elias Magnus Fries in 1838. Genetic testing suggests that Paxillus involutus may be a species complex rather than a single species.

<i>Chalciporus piperatus</i> Species of fungus in the family Boletaceae found in mixed woodland in Europe and North America

Chalciporus piperatus, commonly known as the peppery bolete, is a small pored mushroom of the family Boletaceae found in mixed woodland in Europe and North America. It has been recorded under introduced trees in Brazil, and has become naturalised in Tasmania and spread under native Nothofagus cunninghamii trees. A small bolete, the fruit body has a 1.6–9 cm orange-fawn cap with cinnamon to brown pores underneath, and a 4–9.5 cm high by 0.6–1.2 cm thick stipe. The flesh has a very peppery taste. The rare variety hypochryseus, found only in Europe, has yellow pores and tubes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gomphidiaceae</span> Family of fungi

The Gomphidiaceae are a family of mushroom-forming fungi in the order Boletales. Unlike other boletes, all members of Gomphidiaceae are agarics, having gills instead of pores. Member genera include Chroogomphus, Cystogomphus, Gomphidius and Gomphogaster, the last being a monotypic genus that may be incorporated into Gomphidius in the future after molecular assessment. The similarly named genus Gomphus is unrelated to this family. Another genus Brauniellula has since been sunk into Chroogomphus.

<i>Chroogomphus</i> Genus of fungi

Chroogomphus is a genus of mushrooms commonly known as pine-spikes or spike-caps based on their shape and because they are often found growing in association with pine trees. The genus is distributed throughout the Northern Hemisphere including North America, the Caribbean, Europe, and Asia.

<i>Suillellus luridus</i> Species of edible fungus of the bolete family, found in Asia, Europe, and eastern North America

Suillellus luridus, commonly known as the lurid bolete, is a fungus of the family Boletaceae, found in calcareous broadleaved woodlands in Europe. Fruit bodies appear in summer and autumn and may be locally abundant. It is a firm bolete with an olive-brown cap up to 20 cm (8 in) in diameter, with small orange or red pores on the underside. The stout ochre stem reaches 8–14 cm (3–6 in) high and 1–3 cm (0.4–1.2 in) wide, and is patterned with a red network. Like several other red-pored boletes, it stains blue when bruised or cut.

<i>Gomphidius roseus</i> Species of fungus

Gomphidius roseus, commonly known as the rosy spike-cap or pink gomphidius, is a gilled mushroom found in Europe. Although it has gills, it is a member of the order Boletales, along with the boletes. It is a coral pink-capped mushroom which appears in pine forests in autumn, always near the related mushroom Suillus bovinus, on which it appears to be parasitic.

<i>Boletus pinophilus</i> Eurasian mushroom

Boletus pinophilus, commonly known as the pine bolete or pinewood king bolete, is a basidiomycete fungus of the genus Boletus found throughout Europe and western Asia. Described by Italian naturalist Carlo Vittadini in 1835, B. pinophilus was for many years considered a subspecies or form of the porcini mushroom B. edulis before genetic studies confirmed its distinct status. In 2008, B. pinophilus in western North America were reclassified as a new species, B. rex-veris. B. pinophilus is edible, and may be preserved and cooked.

<i>Gomphidius glutinosus</i> Species of fungus

Gomphidius glutinosus, commonly known as the slimy spike-cap, is a gilled mushroom found in Europe & North America. Although it has gills, it is a member of the order Boletales, along with the boletes. The fruiting bodies sprout in pine, fir and spruce woodland in Europe in autumn. Initially, are completely covered with a slimy veil, breaking through to reveal a greyish or brownish-capped mushroom with decurrent greyish gills which sometimes resembles a child's top. Opinions differ on the suitability of this mushroom for the table, some guides hold it in high regard, while others view it with caution.

<i>Suillus variegatus</i> Species of fungus

Suillus variegatus, commonly called the velvet bolete or variegated bolete, is a species of edible mushroom in the genus Suillus. Like all bolete-like species it has tubes, and pores, instead of gills under its cap. The mushroom forms a mycorrhizal relationship with pine and occurs in North America and Eurasia.

<i>Suillus brevipes</i> Species of edible fungus in the family Suillaceae found throughout North America

Suillus brevipes is a species of fungus in the family Suillaceae. First described by American mycologists in the late 19th century, it is commonly known as the stubby-stalk or the short-stemmed slippery Jack. The fruit bodies (mushrooms) produced by the fungus are characterized by a chocolate to reddish-brown cap covered with a sticky layer of slime, and a short whitish stipe that has neither a partial veil nor prominent, colored glandular dots. The cap can reach a diameter of about 10 cm, while the stipe is up to 6 cm long and 2 cm thick. Like other bolete mushrooms, S. brevipes produces spores in a vertically arranged layer of spongy tubes with openings that form a layer of small yellowish pores on the underside of the cap.

<i>Suillus spraguei</i> Species of mushroom

Suillus spraguei is a species of fungus in the family Suillaceae. It is known by a variety of common names, including the painted slipperycap, the painted suillus or the red and yellow suillus. Suillus spraguei has had a complex taxonomical history, and is also frequently referred to as Suillus pictus in the literature. The readily identifiable fruit bodies have caps that are dark red when fresh, dry to the touch, and covered with mats of hairs and scales that are separated by yellow cracks. On the underside of the cap are small, yellow, angular pores that become brownish as the mushroom ages. The stalk bears a grayish cottony ring, and is typically covered with soft hairs or scales.

<i>Suillus sibiricus</i> Species of fungus

Suillus sibiricus is a fungus of the genus Suillus in the family Suillaceae. It is found in mountains of Europe, North America, and Siberia, strictly associated with several species of pine tree. Due to its specific habitat and rarity in Europe, it has been selected for inclusion in several regional Red Lists. Its fruit bodies are characterised by having slimy caps in wet weather, which can reach diameters of up to 10 cm (3.9 in). On the underside of the cap are yellow angular pores that bruise a pinkish to cinnamon colour. The stem is up to 8 cm (3.1 in) tall and 2.5 cm (1.0 in) wide and typically has a ring, a remnant of the partial veil that covers the fruit body in its early development. In North America, it is commonly called the Siberian slippery jack. Phylogenetic analysis has shown that S. sibiricus is closely related to S. umbonatus and S. americanus, and may in fact be conspecific with the latter species.

<i>Suillus pungens</i> Species of fungus in the family Suillaceae found in California

Suillus pungens, commonly known as the pungent slippery jack or the pungent suillus, is a species of fungus in the genus Suillus. The fruit bodies of the fungus have slimy convex caps up to 14 cm (5.5 in) wide. The mushroom is characterized by the very distinct color changes that occur in the cap throughout development. Typically, the young cap is whitish, later becoming grayish-olive to reddish-brown or a mottled combination of these colors. The mushroom has a dotted stem (stipe) up to 7 cm (2.8 in) long, and 2 cm (0.8 in) thick. On the underside on the cap is the spore-bearing tissue consisting of minute vertically arranged tubes that appear as a surface of angular, yellowish pores. The presence of milky droplets on the pore surface of young individuals, especially in humid environments, is a characteristic feature of this species. S. pungens can usually be distinguished from other similar Suillus species by differences in distribution, odor and taste. The mushroom is considered edible, but not highly regarded.

<i>Suillus collinitus</i> Species of fungus

Suillus collinitus is a pored mushroom of the genus Suillus in the family Suillaceae. It is an edible mushroom found in European pine forests. The mushroom has a reddish to chestnut-brown cap that reaches up to 11 cm (4.3 in) in diameter, and a yellow stem measuring up to 7 cm (2.8 in) tall by 1 to 2 cm thick. On the underside of the cap are small angular pores, initially bright yellow before turning greenish-brown with age. A characteristic feature that helps to distinguish it from similar Suillus species, such as S. granulatus, is the pinkish mycelia at the base of the stem.

<i>Suillus salmonicolor</i> Species of fungus in the family Suillaceae

Suillus salmonicolor, commonly known as the Slippery Jill, is a fungus in the family Suillaceae of the order Boletales. First described as a member of the genus Boletus in 1874, the species acquired several synonyms, including Suillus pinorigidus and Suillus subluteus, before it was assigned its current binomial name in 1983. It has not been determined with certainty whether S. salmonicolor is distinct from the species S. cothurnatus, described by Rolf Singer in 1945. S. salmonicolor is a mycorrhizal fungus—meaning it forms a symbiotic association with the roots of plants such that both organisms benefit from the exchange of nutrients. This symbiosis occurs with various species of pine, and the fruit bodies of the fungus appear scattered or in groups on the ground near the trees. The fungus is found in North America, Hawaii, Asia, the Caribbean, South Africa, Australia and Central America. It has been introduced to several of those locations via transplanted trees.

<i>Gomphidius subroseus</i> Species of fungus

Gomphidius subroseus is a gilled mushroom found in Europe and North America. It was first described by Calvin Henry Kauffman in 1925. It was once thought to be mycorrhizal with Pinus sylvestris. However, Olson et al. (2002) found it to be more likely to be parasitic on Suillus bovinus, which is mycorrhizal with Pinus sylvestris, Pinus sylvestris or both. It is considered edible but of low quality. As with other species of the genus, removing the glutinous cuticle improves the taste.

<i>Chroogomphus ochraceus</i> Species of fungus

Chroogomphus ochraceus is a species of fungus from the family Gomphidiaceae. Known for its close association with conifer trees–especially pines, it is often referred to as the “pine spike” or “spike cap” fungus. C. ochraceus was originally identified as a species limited to the Pacific Northwest because of its display of distinct yellowish colors, but recent research has concluded that this species is widespread across North America and that it is genetically distinct from Chroogomphus rutilus, which is limited to Europe.

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  35. ↑ Dahlberg A, Stenlid J (1990). "Population structure and dynamics in Suillus bovinus as indicated by spatial distribution of fungal clones". New Phytologist. 115 (3): 487–93. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.1990.tb00475.x. PMID   33874270.
  36. ↑ Lukac M, Goldbold DL (2011). Soil Ecology in Northern Forests: A Belowground View of a Changing World. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 67–69. ISBN   978-1-139-50086-9. Archived from the original on 2016-03-07. Retrieved 2015-08-14.
  37. ↑ Timonen S, Jørgensen KS, Haahtela K, Sen R (1997). "Bacterial community structure at defined locations of Pinus sylvestris–Suillus bovinus and Pinus sylvestris–Paxillus involutus mycorrhizospheres in dry pine forest humus and nursery peat". Canadian Journal of Microbiology. 44 (6): 499–513. doi:10.1139/w98-035.
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  39. 1 2 Vosátka M, Rydlová J, Sudová R, Vohník M (2006). "Mycorrhizal fungi as helping agents in phytoremediation of degraded and contaminated soils". In Mackova M, Dowling DN, Macek M (eds.). Phytoremediation and Rhizoremediation. Dordrecht, Germany: Springer Science & Business Media. p. 245. ISBN   978-1-4020-4999-6.
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  44. ↑ Jordan P. (2015). Field Guide to Edible Mushrooms of Britain and Europe. London, United Kingdom: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 99. ISBN   978-1-4729-2085-0.
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