Viscum album

Last updated

Viscum album
Mistletoe in White Poplar 1.jpg
Viscum album growing on a Populus species
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Order: Santalales
Family: Santalaceae
Genus: Viscum
Species:
V. album
Binomial name
Viscum album
L.
Viscum album in the Netherlands Krijtlandpad - Viscum album in the Netherlands (cropped).jpg
Viscum album in the Netherlands

Viscum album is a species of mistletoe in the family Santalaceae, commonly known as European mistletoe, common mistletoe or simply as mistletoe (Old English mistle). [2] It is native to Europe and western and southern Asia. [3]

Contents

Viscum album is a hemiparasite on several species of trees, from which it draws water and nutrients. It has a significant role in European mythology, legends, and customs. In modern times, it is commonly featured in Christmas decoration and symbology. (V. album is found only rarely in North America, as an introduced species; its cultural roles are usually fulfilled by the similar native species Phoradendron leucarpum .)

Description

It is a hemi-parasitic evergreen shrub, which grows on the stems of other trees. The plant contains a haustorium that connects it to the host tree by connecting the xylem and phloem of the mistletoe to that of the host tree, which allows it to receive nutrients and water. [4] It has stems 30–100 centimetres (12–39 in) long with dichotomous branching. The leaves are in opposite pairs, strap-shaped, entire, leathery textured, 2–8 centimetres (0.79–3.15 in) long, 0.8–2.5 centimetres (0.31–0.98 in) broad and are a yellowish-green in colour. This species is dioecious and the insect-pollinated flowers are inconspicuous, yellowish-green, 2–3 millimetres (0.079–0.118 in) diameter. The fruit is a white or yellow berry containing one (very rarely several) seed embedded in the very sticky, glutinous fruit pulp.

It is commonly found in the crowns of broad-leaved trees, particularly apple, lime (linden), hawthorn and poplar. [5]

European mistletoe is the only multicellular organism known to not have a functioning respiratory complex I in its electron transport chain, a protein that's essential for the creation of useful energy for its cells. [6] It is believed to survive by obtaining adenosine triphosphate and energy-rich compounds from its host as well as reorganizing its other respiratory complexes and slowing its growth and energy requirements. [7]

Classification

The mistletoe was one of the many species originally described by Linnaeus. Its species name is the Latin adjective albus "white". It and the other members of the genus Viscum were originally classified in the mistletoe family Viscaceae, but this family has since been sunk into the larger family Santalaceae.

Subspecies

Several subspecies are commonly accepted. [8] [9] [10] [11] They differ in fruit colour, leaf shape and size, and most obviously in the host trees utilised.

Toxicity

European mistletoe is potentially fatal, in a concentrated form, and people can become seriously ill from eating the berries. [13]

The toxic lectin viscumin has been isolated from Viscum album. [14] Viscumin is a cytotoxic protein (ribosome inactivating protein, or RIP) that binds to galactose residues of cell surface glycoproteins and may be internalised by endocytosis. [15] Viscumin strongly inhibits protein synthesis by inactivating the 60 S ribosomal subunit. The structure of this protein is very similar to other RIPs, showing the most resemblance to ricin and abrin. [14] [15]

Some birds have immunity to the poison and enjoy the berries, especially the mistle thrush which is named for its favourite food.

Culture, folklore and mythology

Aeneas finds the Golden Bough. AEneas finds the golden bough Frontispieace Leaves from the Golden Bough.jpg
Aeneas finds the Golden Bough.

European mistletoe features in many myths and legends from early written sources, into the modern period. In cultures across pre-Christian Europe, mistletoe was often seen as a representation of divine male essence (and thus romance, fertility and vitality). [16]

Ancient Greek and Roman

Mistletoe figured prominently in Greek mythology, and is believed to be the Golden Bough of Aeneas, ancestor of the Romans. [17] Also in Greek mythology mistletoe was used by heroes to access the underworld. [18] The Romans associated mistletoe with peace, love and understanding and hung it over doorways to protect the household. [19]

Celtic

Modern botanists believe the described Mistletoe species in oak trees was Loranthus europaeus.[ citation needed ]

Germanic

Each arrow overshot his head (1902) by Elmer Boyd Smith, depicting the blind god Hodr shooting his brother, the god Baldr, with a mistletoe arrow Each arrow overshot his head by Elmer Boyd Smith.jpg
Each arrow overshot his head (1902) by Elmer Boyd Smith, depicting the blind god Höðr shooting his brother, the god Baldr, with a mistletoe arrow

According to the 13th century Prose Edda , the goddess Frigg had everything swear an oath not to hurt her son Baldr, except for mistletoe, because "it seemed too young" to her for that. After this at the thing, other gods had fun by shooting at him, or hurling stones, without him being injured at all. Loki, wishing him dead, tricked Baldr's brother, the blind god Höðr into throwing mistletoe at Baldr, killing him. [20]

In the version of the story in Gesta Danorum , Baldr and Höðr are rival suitors for Nanna, and Höðr kills Baldr with a sword named Mistilteinn (Old Norse "mistletoe"). [21] In addition, a sword by the same name also appears in Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks and Hrómundar saga Gripssonar. [22]

Christian

Mistletoe postcard, circa 1900 Mistletoe Postcard 1900.jpg
Mistletoe postcard, circa 1900

When Christianity became widespread in Europe after the 3rd century AD, the religious or mystical respect for the mistletoe plant was integrated to an extent into the new religion.[ citation needed ] In some way that is not presently understood, this may have led to the widespread custom of kissing under the mistletoe plant during the Christmas season. The earliest documented case of kissing under the mistletoe dates from 16th century England, a custom that was apparently very popular at that time.

Winston Graham reports a Cornish tradition that mistletoe was originally a fine tree from which the wood of the Cross was made, but afterwards it was condemned to live on only as a parasite. [23]

Mistletoe is commonly used as a Christmas decoration, though such use was rarely alluded to until the 18th century. [24] According to custom, the mistletoe must not touch the ground between its cutting and its removal as the last of Christmas greens at Candlemas. It may remain hanging throughout the year, often to preserve the house from lightning or fire, until it is replaced the following Christmas Eve. [24] [25] The tradition has spread throughout the English-speaking world, but is largely unknown in the rest of Europe. (The similar native species Phoradendron leucarpum is used in North America in lieu of the European Viscum album.)

According to an old Christmas custom, a man and a woman who meet under a hanging of mistletoe were obliged to kiss. The custom may be of Scandinavian origin. [26] It was alluded to as common practice in 1808 [27] and described in 1820 by American author Washington Irving in his The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. :

The mistletoe is still hung up in farm-houses and kitchens at Christmas, and the young men have the privilege of kissing the girls under it, plucking each time a berry from the bush. When the berries are all plucked the privilege ceases. [28]

In Germany, the Christmas tradition is that people who kiss under mistletoe will have an enduring love or are bound to marry one another. [29]

Other

Every year, the UK town of Tenbury Wells holds a mistletoe festival and crowns a 'Mistletoe Queen'. [19]

Mistletoe is the county flower of Herefordshire. It was voted such in 2002 following a poll by the wild plant conservation charity Plantlife. [30]

Uses

Flavoring

Mistletoe is an ingredient of biska , a pomace brandy-based liquor made in Istria. [31]

Alternative medicine

Mistletoe leaves and young twigs are used by herbalists, and preparations made from them are popular in Europe, especially in Germany, for attempting to treat circulatory and respiratory system problems. [32] [33] [34] Use of mistletoe extract in the treatment of cancer originated with Rudolf Steiner, the founder of Anthroposophy. [35]

Although laboratory and animal experiments have suggested that mistletoe extract may affect the immune system and be able to kill some kinds of cancer cells, there is little evidence of its benefit to people with cancer. [36] [37]

Bird trapping

The sticky juice of mistletoe berries was used to make birdlime, an adhesive to trap small animals or birds. [38]

The Latin word viscum, 'mistletoe, birdlime' is the source of viscous. [39]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mistletoe</span> Common name for various parasitic plants that grow on trees and shrubs

Mistletoe is the common name for obligate hemiparasitic plants in the order Santalales. They are attached to their host tree or shrub by a structure called the haustorium, through which they extract water and nutrients from the host plant.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Loranthaceae</span> Family of mistletoes

Loranthaceae, commonly known as the showy mistletoes, is a family of flowering plants. It consists of about 75 genera and 1,000 species of woody plants, many of them hemiparasites. The three terrestrial species are Nuytsia floribunda, Atkinsonia ligustrina, and Gaiadendron punctatum Loranthaceae are primarily xylem parasites, but their haustoria may sometimes tap the phloem, while Tristerix aphyllus is almost holoparasitic. For a more complete description of the Australian Loranthaceae, see Flora of Australia online., for the Malesian Loranthaceae see Flora of Malesia.

<i>Ilex opaca</i> Species of holly

Ilex opaca, the American holly, is a species of holly, native to the eastern and south-central United States, from coastal Massachusetts south to central Florida, and west to southeastern Missouri and eastern Texas.

<i>Prunus serotina</i> Species of tree

Prunus serotina, commonly called black cherry, wild black cherry, rum cherry, or mountain black cherry, is a deciduous tree or shrub of the genus Prunus. Despite being called black cherry, it is not very closely related to the commonly cultivated cherries such as sweet cherry, sour cherry and Japanese flowering cherries which belong to Prunus subg. Cerasus. Instead, P. serotina belongs to Prunus subg. Padus, a subgenus also including Eurasian bird cherry and chokecherry. The species is widespread and common in North America and South America.

<i>Acer tataricum</i> Species of tree

Acer tataricum, the Tatar maple or Tatarian maple, is a species of maple widespread across central and southeastern Europe and temperate Asia, from Austria and Turkey east as far as Japan and the Russian Far East. The species is named after the Tatar peoples of southern Russia; the tree's name is similarly commonly also misspelled "Tartar" or "Tartarian" in English.

<i>Viscum</i> Genus of mistletoes

Viscum is a genus of about 70–100 species of mistletoes, native to temperate and tropical regions of Europe, Africa, Asia and Australasia. Traditionally, the genus has been placed in its own family Viscaceae, but recent genetic research by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group shows this family to be correctly placed within a larger circumscription of the sandalwood family, Santalaceae. Its name is the origin of the English word viscous, after the Latin viscum, a sticky bird lime made from the plants' berries.

<i>Sambucus nigra</i> Species of flowering plant in the moschatel family Adoxaceae

Sambucus nigra is a species complex of flowering plants in the family Adoxaceae native to most of Europe. Common names include elder, elderberry, black elder, European elder, European elderberry, and European black elderberry. It grows in a variety of conditions including both wet and dry fertile soils, primarily in sunny locations. The plant is widely grown as an ornamental shrub or small tree. Both the flowers and the berries have a long tradition of culinary use, primarily for cordial and wine.

<i>Phoradendron</i> Genus of mistletoes

Phoradendron is a genus of mistletoe, native to warm temperate and tropical regions of the Americas. The center of diversity is the Amazon rainforest. Phoradendron is the largest genus of mistletoe in the Americas, and possibly the largest genus of mistletoes in the world. Traditionally, the genus has been placed in the family Viscaceae, but recent genetic research acknowledged by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group shows this family to be correctly placed within a larger circumscription of the sandalwood family, Santalaceae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mistletoebird</span> Species of bird

The mistletoebird, also known as the mistletoe flowerpecker, is a species of flowerpecker native to most of Australia and also to the eastern Maluku Islands of Indonesia in the Arafura Sea between Australia and New Guinea. The mistletoebird eats mainly the berries of the parasitic mistletoe and is a vector for the spread of the mistletoe's seeds through its digestive system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kissing traditions</span> Societal tradition

Many societies have traditions which involve kissing. Kissing can indicate joy or be used as part of a greeting. Kissing involves the touching of one's lips to the lips or other body part, such as the cheek, head or hand of another person. Sometimes people often kiss their friends as a way of giving luck or even showing feelings.

<i>Phoradendron leucarpum</i> Species of flowering plant

Phoradendron leucarpum is a species of mistletoe in the Viscaceae family which is native to the United States and Mexico. Its common names include American mistletoe, eastern mistletoe, hairy mistletoe and oak mistletoe. It is native to Mexico and the continental United States. It is hemiparasitic, living in the branches of trees. The berries are white and 3–6 millimeters (0.12–0.24 in). It has opposite leaves that are leathery and thick. Ingesting the berries can cause "stomach and intestinal irritation with diarrhea, lowered blood pressure, and slow pulse". This shrub can grow to 1 meter (3.3 ft) by 1 meter (3.3 ft).

<i>Viscum cruciatum</i> Species of plant in the family Santalaceae

Viscum cruciatum, commonly called the red-berry mistletoe, is a species of mistletoe in the family Santalaceae. It is native to Lebanon, Morocco, Israel, Palestine, Portugal, Spain, and Syria.

<i>Myrtus communis</i> Species of flowering plant

Myrtus communis, the common myrtle or true myrtle, is a species of flowering plant in the myrtle family Myrtaceae. It is an evergreen shrub native to southern Europe, North Africa, Western Asia, Macaronesia, and the Indian Subcontinent, and also cultivated.

Sacred herbs are herbs that are considered sacred in some religions. Herbs such as myrrh, ague root, and frankincense in Christianity, Nine Herbs Charm in the partially Christianized Anglo-Saxon pagan, and a form of basil called tulsi— revered as a Hindu goddess for its medicinal value—are utilized in their rites and rituals.

<i>Viscum capense</i> Species of flowering plant

Viscum capense is a species of Mistletoe that is indigenous to South Africa, especially the area from Cape Town, northwards along the coast up to Namibia, and eastwards as far as the Eastern Cape province.

<i>Viscum rotundifolium</i> Species of flowering plant

Viscum rotundifolium, the red-berry mistletoe, is a variable, wide-ranging and monoecious mistletoe of southern Africa. It is a hardy, evergreen hemiparasite with a catholic variety of host plants, including other mistletoes. It may be found from near sea level to 1,950 m. Its fleshy, leathery leaves are dark or pale green and variable in shape, though usually broadly ovate to elliptic. While its creamy-green flowers are small and inconspicuous, the fruit are a brilliant, shiny orange-red colour when ripe. It is similar to V. schaeferiEngl. & K.Krause and V. pauciflorumL.f. with which it may be confused.

<i>Viscum combreticola</i> Species of shrub

Viscum combreticola, the Combretum mistletoe, is a leafless, dioecious mistletoe shrub, occurring from southern to tropical Africa, in a broad zone following the Rift Valleys. Though it is typically a hemiparasite of Combretum species, it may also be found on Terminalia (Combretaceae), Acacia, Croton, Diplorhynchus, Dombeya, Heteropyxis, Maytenus, Melia, Strychnos or Vangueria.

<i>Lysiana exocarpi</i> Species of mistletoe

Lysiana exocarpi, commonly known as harlequin mistletoe, is a species of hemiparasitic shrub, endemic to Australia. It is in the Gondwanan family Loranthaceae and is probably the most derived genus of that family with 12 pairs of chromosomes. The Loranthaceae is the most diverse family in the mistletoe group with over 900 species worldwide and including the best known species in Australia. Mistletoes are notable for their relationships with other species. In an early reference to the group in Australia Allan Cunningham explorer and first Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney, wrote in 1817: "The Bastard Box is frequently much encumbered with the twining adhering Loranthus aurantiacus which 'Scorning the soil, aloft she springs, Shakes her red plumes and claps her golden wings'."

Phoratoxins are a group of peptide toxins that belong to the family of thionins, a subdivision of small plant toxins. Phoratoxins are proteins present in the leaves and branches of the Phoradendron, commonly known as the American variant of the mistletoe, a plant commonly used as decoration during the festive season. The berries of the mistletoe do not contain phoratoxins, making them less toxic compared to other parts of the plant. The toxicity of the mistletoe is dependent on the host tree, since mistletoe is known to be a semi-parasite. The host tree provides fixed inorganic nitrogen compounds necessary for the mistletoe to synthesize phoratoxins.

<i>Amyema miraculosa</i> Species of plant

Amyema miraculosa, also known as the fleshy mistletoe and the round-leaf mistletoe, is an Australian native mistletoe found in all states except Tasmania. It is a woody, hemiparasitic plant, in the Loranthaceae family. Being hemiparasitic, it draws water and minerals from its host, however it photosynthesises to manufacture its own supply of carbohydrates.

References

  1. ↑ Chappuis, E. (2014). "Viscum album (Europe assessment)". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2014: e.T203473A2766017. Retrieved 11 October 2023.
  2. ↑ Zuber, Doris (2004). "Biological flora of Central Europe: Viscum album L.". Flora - Morphology, Distribution, Functional Ecology of Plants. Elsevier BV. 199 (3): 181–203. doi:10.1078/0367-2530-00147. ISSN   0367-2530.
  3. ↑ O'Neill, A. R.; Rana, S. K. (2019). "An ethnobotanical analysis of parasitic plants (Parijibi) in the Nepal Himalaya". Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 12 (14): 14. doi: 10.1186/s13002-016-0086-y . PMC   4765049 . PMID   26912113.
  4. ↑ Krasylenko, Yuliya; Sosnovsky, Yevhen; Atamas, Natalia; Popov, Grigory; Leonenko, Volodymyr; Janošíková, Kateřina; Sytschak, Nadiya; Rydlo, Karol; Sytnyk, Dmytro (September 2020). "The European mistletoe ( Viscum album L.): distribution, host range, biotic interactions, and management worldwide with special emphasis on Ukraine". Botany. 98 (9): 499–516. doi:10.1139/cjb-2020-0037. ISSN   1916-2790.
  5. ↑ Broadmeadow, Mark. "ISSUE 9 – Spring/Summer 2005". Tree News Magazine. Archived from the original on 2006-01-03.
  6. ↑ "Mistletoe is missing the machinery to make energy". www.science.org. Retrieved 2022-02-08.
  7. ↑ Fonseca-Pereira, Paula da; Silva, Willian Batista; Araújo, Wagner L.; Nunes-Nesi, Adriano (2018-10-01). "How Does European Mistletoe Survive Without Complex I?". Trends in Plant Science. 23 (10): 847–850. doi:10.1016/j.tplants.2018.07.008. ISSN   1360-1385. PMID   30097375. S2CID   51956904.
  8. ↑ "Flora Europaea Search Results = Viscum album". Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. Retrieved 2022-08-25.
  9. 1 2 "Viscum album Linnaeus subsp. meridianum". Flora of China @ efloras.org. Archived from the original on 2016-03-03.
  10. ↑ Bean, W. J. (1980). Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles. Vol. 4 (8th ed.). J. Murray. pp. 725–726. ISBN   0-7195-2428-8.
  11. ↑ Blamey, Marjorie; Grey-Wilson, Christopher (1989). The illustrated flora of Britain and northern Europe. London: Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN   0-340-40170-2. OCLC   41355268.
  12. ↑ Böhling, Niels; Greuter, Werner; Raus, Thomas; Snogerup, Britt; Snogerup, Sven; Snogerup, b Sven (2002-01-01). "Notes on the Cretan mistletoe, Viscum album subsp. creticum subsp. nova (Loranthaceae/Viscaceae)". Israel Journal of Plant Sciences. Laser Pages Publishing Ltd. 50 (1): 77–84. doi:10.1560/rrj4-hu15-8bfm-wauk. ISSN   0792-9978.
  13. ↑ "Is mistletoe poisonous?". Poison Control.
  14. 1 2 Olsnes S, Stirpe F, Sandvig K, Pihl A (November 1982). "Isolation and characterization of viscumin, a toxic lectin from Viscum album L. (mistletoe)". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 257 (22): 13263–70. doi: 10.1016/S0021-9258(18)33440-9 . PMID   7142144 . Retrieved 2009-06-22.
  15. 1 2 Stirpe F, Sandvig K, Olsnes S, Pihl A (November 1982). "Action of viscumin, a toxic lectin from mistletoe, on cells in culture". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 257 (22): 13271–7. doi: 10.1016/S0021-9258(18)33441-0 . PMID   7142145 . Retrieved 2009-06-22.
  16. 1 2 David M. Watson (2004), Mistletoe: a unique constituent of canopies worldwide (2nd ed.), pp. 212–223, Wikidata   Q119858256
  17. ↑ Virgil (19 BCE) The Aeneid
  18. ↑ Bonham, Emma (2015-12-01). "Mistletoe: meaning, mythology and magic". woodlandtrust.org.uk. Archived from the original on 2018-12-09.
  19. 1 2 Bell, Bethan (2013-12-10). "Tenbury Wells: Centuries-old romance with mistletoe". BBC News.
  20. ↑ Edda . Translated by Faulkes, Anthony. Everyman. 1995. pp. 48–49. ISBN   0-460-87616-3.
  21. ↑ Saxo Grammaticus (17 January 2008). Hilda Ellis Davidson (ed.). Saxo Grammaticus: The History of the Danes, Books I-IX. Translated by Peter Fisher (revised ed.). Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK & Rochester, NY: Boydell & Brewer. ISBN   978-0-85991-502-1.
  22. ↑ Simek, Rudolf (1993). Dictionary of northern mythology. Cambridge [England]: D.S. Brewer. ISBN   9780859915137.
  23. ↑ Graham, Winston (2002). "Chapter 6". Bella Poldark. Macmillan.
  24. 1 2 Drury, Susan (1987). "Customs and Beliefs Associated with Christmas Evergreens: A Preliminary Survey". Folklore. Informa UK Limited. 98 (2): 194–199. doi:10.1080/0015587x.1987.9716413. ISSN   0015-587X.
  25. ↑ Peffley, Ellen (2013-12-25). "The history and not-so-romantic truth about mistletoe". Lubbock Avalanche-Journal.
  26. ↑ E. Cobham Brewer, Dictionary of Phrase and Fable 1898, s.v. "Kissing under the mistletoe" relates the custom to the death of Baldr, without authority.
  27. ↑ In a newspaper advertisement for shaving products:'THE KISS UNDER THE MISSELTOE. Under the misseltoe the maid was led/Altho' she cried, No, she held up her head/To obtain a kiss: a sigh was heard./The reason why - Tom rubbed her with his beard' The Times (London, England), 13 October 1808; p.4
  28. ↑ Irving, Washington (1849). "Christmas Eve". The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. Works of Washington Irving. G. P. Putnam. p. 254.
  29. ↑ "Warum küsst man sich unter dem Mistelzweig?". zeit.de (in German).
  30. ↑ "Mistletoe". Plantlife.
  31. ↑ Rushby, Kevin (20 August 2016). "Cres, Croatia: island of ghosts and vultures". The Guardian. Retrieved 27 December 2017.
  32. ↑ Ernst, Eduard; Schmidt, Katja; Steuer-Vogt, Miriam Katharina (2003-08-26). "Mistletoe for cancer? A systematic review of randomised clinical trials". International Journal of Cancer. Wiley. 107 (2): 262–267. doi: 10.1002/ijc.11386 . ISSN   0020-7136. PMID   12949804. S2CID   46016570.
  33. ↑ "Mistletoe". drugdigest.org. Archived from the original on 2008-07-19.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  34. ↑ "A Modern Herbal - Mistletoe". Botanical.com. Archived from the original on 2016-08-21.
  35. ↑ "European and Oriental mistletoe: From mythology to contemporary integrative cancer care". sciencedirect.com.
  36. ↑ "Questions and Answers About Mistletoe". National Cancer Institute. 24 March 2015. Retrieved 3 December 2015.
  37. ↑ Horneber MA, Bueschel G, Huber R, Linde K, Rostock M (2008). "Mistletoe therapy in oncology". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (Systematic review). 2020 (2): CD003297. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003297.pub2. PMC   7144832 . PMID   18425885. The review found that there was not enough evidence to reach clear conclusions about the effects on any of these outcomes and it is therefore not clear to what extent the application of mistletoe extracts translates into improved symptom control, enhanced tumour response or prolonged survival.
  38. ↑ Johnson, T.B. (1848). The Sportsman's Cyclopaedia. Henry G. Bohn. p. 56.
  39. ↑ Harper, Douglas. "viscous | Origin and meaning of viscous by Online Etymology Dictionary". www.etymonline.com. Retrieved 22 May 2021.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.