Archaeology in India

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The Mahabodhi Temple in Bodhgaya, India, which is the alleged place of enlightenment of the Buddha. It remains one of India's most important archaeological sites. Mahabodhitemple.jpg
The Mahabodhi Temple in Bodhgaya, India, which is the alleged place of enlightenment of the Buddha. It remains one of India's most important archaeological sites.

Archaeology in India is mainly done under the supervision of the Archaeological Survey of India.

Contents

History

12th century Indian scholar Kalhana's writings involved recording of local traditions, examining manuscripts, inscriptions, coins and architectures, which is described as one of the earliest traces of archaeology. One of his notable work is called Rajatarangini which was completed in c.1150 and is described as one of the first history books of India. [1] [2] [3]

Origin of modern archaeology

One of the earliest non-Indian scholars to take an interest in the archaeology of the Indian subcontinent were Western European travelers in the 16th, 17th and early 18th centuries. The earliest European written accounts of India's ancient monuments and Hindu temples were produced by sailors and travelers in the 16th, 17th and early 18th centuries CE. Some of these accounts included ground plans and drawings of the buildings, however they lacked any historical discussion of their origins, with the exception of several references to Alexander the Great, the Macedonian emperor, who tried and failed to conquer India in the fourth century BCE. [4]

Some notable archaeological sites in India include Rakhigarhi, an archaeological site located in the state of Haryana, India. Mohenjo-Daro [5] and Harappa are also ancient archaeological sites that were once a part of India, but now lie within the borders of Pakistan. The Harappan civilization was also called the Indus River Valley Civilization. [6]

Alexander Cunningham and Archaeological Survey of India

"Archaeology in South Asia did not crystallize out of the informal archaeology of enthusiastic amateur South Asians, but was created by elite foreigners, at the capital, by an act of state."

Thomas R. Trautmann and Carla M. Sinopoli, 2002. [7]

Scholarly investigation into Indian archaeology was largely influenced by Alexander Cunningham, who became the first director of the Archaeological Survey of India, which was established in 1861. Cunningham along with various assistants visited many sites and monuments of archaeological importance in India. Their trips ranged from simply visiting sites to study and report on to excavations as well. [8]

This is an image of the Rahigarhi/Rakhigarhi site in Harayana, India Rakhigarhi Harappan civilization.jpg
This is an image of the Rahigarhi/Rakhigarhi site in Harayana, India

Paleolithic archaeological sites (2,500,000–250,000 BC)

Palaeolithic sites in India are characterised by the Madrasian culture and Soanian culture. Bhimbetka rock shelters is also a paleolithic (Old Stone Age) and mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) site.

Mesolithic sites (250,000 BC–10,000 BC)

Anangpur caves (Faridabad) and Mangar Bani Caves (Gurugram) in Delhi NCR, Bhimbetka rock shelters (Bhopal) and Pahargarh caves (Morena) IN Madhya Pradesh have continuity of paleolithic to mesolithic phase.

Neolithic sites (10,800–3300 BC)

Neolithic sites in India are characterised by the Bhirrana culture (7570–6200 BC), Mehrgarh culture (7000–3300 BC) and Edakkal culture (5000–3000 BC).

Marine archaeology in the Gulf of Khambat,

Sanganakallu, Kupgal petroglyphs, Sonda rock art, dwellings of Anegundi are neolithic sites. Brahmagiri archaeological site has neolithic and mesolithic phases.

Chalcolithic (Copper age) archaeological sites (3500–1500 BC)

Chalcolithic cultures

Chalcolithic sites in India are characterised by the following cultures.

Megalithic archaeological sites of India

Megaliths in India date back to 5000 BC in southern India, before 3000 BC in upper Indus valley in northern India, [9] and megaliths in eastern India are of much later date. [10] [11]

Types of megaliths

Megaliths, made of large stones, are man-made structures.

Based on the "structural design" megaliths are classified as either monolith or polylithic.: [12]

  • Monolithic structures: are single large stones standing vertically, which have following 2 sub-types.
    • Menhir : are vertically standing stone, usually found across all continents.
    • Stone circles: are vertically standing several stones, standing separate from each other with no physical contact with each other, to form circle, semi circle or ellipse.
  • Polylithic structures are made of several large stones in physical contact with each other, these are of following 3 sub-types:
    • Dolmen : megalith which is made in single chamber tomb, usually consisting of three or more upright stones supporting a large flat horizontal capstone.
    • Cairn : a man-made pile of stones, often in conical form, raised either as sepulchral monuments or for astronomical use, these range from simple small piles of loose stones to architecturally complex arrangements.
    • Cist : encasements for dead bodies, in which presence of ornaments shows the wealth or importance of the dead, usually found in groups or close to cairns.

Based on the "usage type" megaliths are classified as

  • Non-sepulchral: not-used for burial, but have ceremonial usage such as worship.
  • Sepulchral: used for burial. Many of these sites are associated with burial or post burial rituals which may have been connected with ancestor worship, including memorials for those whose remains may or may not be available. [10] [13] [14] There is another distinct class of megaliths that are not associated with burials. [10]

List of megalithic sites in India

In India, megaliths of all kinds are noted; these vary from chamber tomb, stone alignment and anthropomorphic figures as well as the following: [10]

Megalithic monuments by states

Megaliths are found across whole of India, but there are found in higher numbers in central, southern and eastern India.

Man-made megalithic monuments in India include Anegundi, Byse rock art, Chovvanur burial cave, Hirapur dolmen, Hire Benakal, Kudakkallu Parambu, Sidlaphadi.

Maharashtra

In Maharashtra, megaliths are found in Vidharba and south Maharashtra. The megaliths found in south Maharashtra are of varied types, such as head stones alone, or rock chambers and even dolmen. Megaliths in Vidarbha regions are burial sites marked by stone circles. [15] Important megalithic sites of Vidarbha are Hirapur dolmens, Stone circles of Junapani sepulchral megaliths of basalt rocks with remains of the dead 10 km (6.2 mi) northwest of Nagpur, Mahurjhari Stone Circles with are 200 megalithic stone circles 15 km (9.3 mi) northwest of Nagpur, Naikund with evidence of iron smelting 35 km (22 mi) north of Nagpur, and Takalghat Khapa 34 km (21 mi) south of Nagpur. [15] In Vidharba, the Naikund, Mahurjhari, Borgaon 40 km (25 mi) southwest of Nagpur and Khairwada 80 km (50 mi) west of Nagpur megalithic sites have been excavated. [16]

Gorewada Stone Circles in Nagpur, connected to both Junapani and Mahurzari civilisation, are India's largest stone circle and it has the highest number of circular stones in India. Kherwadi in Wardha district has 1500 cairns burials, which are connected to Gorewada burial ground.

Pottery found at these sites belongs to Black and red ware (BRW) (10,800–3300 BC). [12] In the Western Ganges plain (western Uttar Pradesh) it is dated to c. 1450–1200 BCE, and is succeeded by the Painted Grey Ware culture; whereas in the Central and Eastern Ganges plain (eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Bengal) and Central India (Madhya Pradesh) the BRW appears during the same period but continues for longer, until c. 700–500 BCE, when it is succeeded by the Northern Black Polished Ware culture. [17]

Bronze Age archaeological sites (3300–1300 BC)

Bronze Age India in the Indian subcontinent begins around 3000 BCE, and it was succeeded by the Iron Age in India beginning in around 1400 BCE. Bronze Age sites include Hire Benakal.

Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC)

In the prehistory of the Indian subcontinent, the Iron Age in India cultures are the Painted Grey Ware culture (1300 to 300 BCE) [18] [19] and the Northern Black Polished Ware (700 to 200 BCE), the later corresponds to the transition of the Vedic period Janapada principalities to the sixteen Mahajanapadas region-states of the early historic period, culminating in the emergence of the Maurya Empire towards the end of the period.

Phases of IVC

Phases of IVC

IVC burial sites

More than 50 IVC burial sites have been found, among those main sites in India are Rakhigarhi (first site with genetic testing) and Farmana in Haryana, Sanauli in Uttar Pradesh, Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Lothal and Dholavira in Gujarat. Other IVC burial sites outside India have been found in Pakistan in Mehrgarh, Harappa, and Mohenjo-daro. [20]

Main IVC sites

Rakhigarhi

In 1963, the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) began excavations at this site, and, though little has been published about the excavations. [21] [22] Further excavations were conducted the ASI headed by the archaeologist, Amarendra Nath, between 1997 and 2000. [23] [note 1] The more recent excavations have been performed by Vasant Shinde, an archaeologist from the Deccan College. [24]

Analysis and mapping of this site has shown it to be even larger than Mohenjo Daro. [24] Radiocarbon dating was used at this site to analyze soil samples. The results showed that the soil samples were dated back to the millennium of 2000 years BC. [25]

Bronze Age: Vedic Civilisation (2000–1500 BC)

Early Vedic Civilisation, which falls in the Bronze Age, is characterised to the following cultures:

Iron Age archaeological sites (1500–200 BC)

Iron Age north India: Vedic Civilisation (1500–500 BC)

Vedic Civilisation which originated in Bronze Age, evolved through the following stages in the Iron Age:

Iron Age south India

Iron Age sites in south India are Adichanallur in Tamil Nadu, Hallur in Haveri district of Karnataka, Keezhadi excavation site

Early to mid Middle Ages archaeological sites (500 BC – 1,000)

Middle Kingdoms archaeological sites (230 BC – AD 1206)

Following were either largest in area and/or longest reigning or had watershed moment impact:

Late medieval archaeological sites (1206–1526)

The sites related to the following:

Early modern archaeological sites (1526–1858)

Some of the main sites are related to the

Colonial archaeological sites (1510–1961)

The sites are related to the following colonial rulers:

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Amarendra Nath was later found guilty for forging bills during the excavation at Rakhigarhi.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indus Valley Civilisation</span> Bronze Age civilisation in South Asia

The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), also known as the Indus Civilisation, was a Bronze Age civilisation in the northwestern regions of South Asia, lasting from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE, and in its mature form 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE. Together with ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, it was one of three early civilisations of the Near East and South Asia, and of the three, the most widespread, its sites spanning an area from much of Pakistan, to northeast Afghanistan, and northwestern India. The civilisation flourished both in the alluvial plain of the Indus River, which flows through the length of Pakistan, and along a system of perennial monsoon-fed rivers that once coursed in the vicinity of the Ghaggar-Hakra, a seasonal river in northwest India and eastern Pakistan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Megalith</span> Large stone used to build a structure or monument

A megalith is a large stone that has been used to construct a prehistoric structure or monument, either alone or together with other stones. There are over 35,000 in Europe alone, located widely from Sweden to the Mediterranean sea.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rakhigarhi</span> Archaeological site in Haryana, India

Rakhigarhi or Rakhi Garhi is a village and an archaeological site belonging to the Indus Valley civilisation in Hisar District of the northern Indian state of Haryana, situated about 150 km northwest of Delhi. It was part of the mature phase of the Indus Valley Civilisation, dating to 2600-1900 BCE. It was among the largest settlements of the ancient civilisation, though most of it remains unexcavated. The site is located in the Ghaggar River plain, some 27 km from the seasonal Ghaggar river. Initial excavations at the site happened in the 1960s, followed by further excavations in the late 1990s, however more sustained excavations have taken place in the past decade.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black and red ware</span> South Asian earthenware

Black and red ware (BRW) is a South Asian earthenware, associated with the neolithic phase, Harappa, Bronze Age India, Iron Age India, the megalithic and the early historical period. Although it is sometimes called an archaeological culture, the spread in space and time and the differences in style and make are such that the ware must have been made by several cultures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ochre Coloured Pottery culture</span> Bronze Age culture of the Indo-Gangetic Plain

The Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (OCP) is a Bronze Age culture of the Indo-Gangetic Plain "generally dated 2000–1500 BCE," extending from eastern Punjab to northeastern Rajasthan and western Uttar Pradesh.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Painted Grey Ware culture</span> North Indian Iron Age culture

The Painted Grey Ware culture (PGW) is an Iron Age Indo-Aryan culture of the western Gangetic plain and the Ghaggar-Hakra valley in the Indian subcontinent, conventionally dated c.1200 to 600–500 BCE, or from 1300 to 500–300 BCE It is a successor of the Cemetery H culture and Black and red ware culture (BRW) within this region, and contemporary with the continuation of the BRW culture in the eastern Gangetic plain and Central India.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Northern Black Polished Ware</span> Iron Age culture of the Indian Subcontinent

The Northern Black Polished Ware culture is an urban Iron Age Indian culture of the Indian subcontinent, lasting c. 700–200 BCE, succeeding the Painted Grey Ware culture and Black and red ware culture. It developed beginning around 700 BCE, in the late Vedic period, and peaked from c. 500–300 BCE, coinciding with the emergence of 16 great states or Mahajanapadas in Northern India, and the subsequent rise of the Mauryan Empire.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amri, Sindh</span> Ancient settlement in Sindh province of Pakistan

Amri is an ancient settlement in modern-day Sindh, Pakistan, that goes back to 3600 BCE. The site is located south of Mohenjo Daro on Hyderabad-Dadu Road more than 100 kilometres north of Hyderabad, Pakistan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Iron Age in India</span> Aspect of Indian history

In the prehistory of the Indian subcontinent, the Iron Age succeeded Bronze Age India and partly corresponds with the megalithic cultures of India. Other Iron Age archaeological cultures of India were the Painted Grey Ware culture and the Northern Black Polished Ware. This corresponds to the transition of the Janapadas or principalities of the Vedic period to the sixteen Mahajanapadas or region-states of the early historic period, culminating in the emergence of the Maurya Empire towards the end of the period.

Amri–Nal culture is attributed to Amri archaeological sites in Sindh and Balochistan provinces of Pakistan. It flourished in the 4th and 3rd millennia BC. The dual typesites are Amri and Sohr Damb area in Naal, Balochistan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pottery in the Indian subcontinent</span>

Pottery in the Indian subcontinent has an ancient history and is one of the most tangible and iconic elements of Indian art. Evidence of pottery has been found in the early settlements of Lahuradewa and later the Indus Valley Civilisation. Today, it is a cultural art that is still practiced extensively in the subcontinent. Until recent times all Indian pottery has been earthenware, including terracotta.

Banawali is an archaeological site belonging to Indus Valley civilization period in Fatehabad district, Haryana, India and is located about 120 km northeast of Kalibangan and 16 km from Fatehabad. Banawali, which is earlier called Vanavali, is on the left banks of dried up Sarasvati River. Comparing to Kalibangan, which was a town established in lower middle valley of dried up Sarasvathi River, Banawali was built over upper middle valley of Sarasvati River.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bhirrana</span> Archaeological site and village in Haryana, India

Bhirrana, also Bhirdana and Birhana, is an archaeological site, located in a small village in the Fatehabad district of the north Indian state of Haryana. Bhirrana's earliest archaeological layers predates the Indus Valley civilisation times, dating to the 8th-7th millennium BCE. The site is one of the many sites seen along the channels of the seasonal Ghaggar river, thought by some to be the Rigvedic Saraswati river.

Brahmagiri is an archaeological site located in the Chitradurga district of the state of Karnataka, India. Legend has it that this is the site where sage Gautama Maharishi and his wife Ahalya lived. He was one among seven noted Hindu saints. This site was first explored by Benjamin L. Rice in 1891, who discovered rock edicts of Emperor Ashoka here. These rock edicts indicated that the locality was termed as Isila and denoted the southernmost extent of the Mauryan empire. The Brahmagiri site is a granite outcrop elevated about 180 m. above the surrounding plains and measures around 500 m east-west and 100 m north-south. It is well known for the large number of megalithic monuments that have been found here. The earliest settlement found here has been dated to at least the 2nd millennium BC.

Kunal is a pre-Harappan Indus Valley civilisation settlement located, just 30 km from Fatehabad City in Fatehabad district of Haryana state in India. Compared to other IVC sites, such as cities like Rakhigarhi and towns like Kalibangan, Kunal site was a village. Excavation at Kunal show 3 successive phases of Pre-Harappan indigenous culture on the Saraswati river who also traded with Kalibanga and Lothal. Kunal, along with its other contemporary sites Bhirrana and Rakhigarhi on Sarasvati-Ghaggar river system, is recognised as the oldest Pre-Harappan settlement, with Kunal being an older cultural ancestor to Rehman Dheri in Pakistan< which is on the Tentative List for future World Heritage Sites.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stone circles of Junapani</span> Historic site in Dist. Nagpur, Maharashtra.

The stone circles of Junapani are prehistoric megalithic circles in Junapani, near Nagpur in the Indian state of Maharashtra. There are about 300 such stone circles noted around Junapani. They were first excavated by J. H. Rivett-Carnac in 1879, yielding a variety of iron objects including daggers, flat axes with cross-ring fasteners, hoes, rings, bracelets, horse bits, chisels with long blades, and pointed tongs, possibly covered with a wooden handle. There is also evidence of black and red pottery, such as bowls featuring linear paintings in black. The burial sites were characterized by cairns. About 150 stone circles have been studied and documented. A notable feature is the cup-marked stones in the circles which seem to suggest an astronomical significance. This aspect has been discerned from the fact that the cup-marked stones are fixed at specific locations denoting specific directions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hakra Ware culture</span> Indus Valley material culture

Hakra Ware culture was a material culture which is contemporaneous with the early Harappan Ravi phase culture of the Indus Valley in Northern India and eastern-Pakistan. This culture arises in the 4th millennium with the first remnants of Hakra Ware pottery appearing near Jalilpur on the Ravi River about 80 miles (130 km) southwest of Harrappa in 1972. Along with this, numerous other areas including Kunal, Dholavira, Bhirrana, Girwas, Farmana and Rakhigarhi areas of India contained Hakra Ware pottery.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sohr Damb</span> Archaeological site in Pakistan

Sohr Damb, c. 3800–2300 BC, is an archaeological site, located near Nal, in central Balochistan, Pakistan that begins before the Indus Valley civilization featuring Togau, Kili Ghul Mohammad, and Kechi Beg pottery styles. It has also been known as Naal, Balochistan, and gave its name to the prehistoric Amri-Nal culture, which is attributed to the dual typesites of Amri and Nal.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hirapur dolmen</span> Historic site in Chandrapur district, Maharashtra.

Hirapur dolmens, dating back to 2nd-3rd century BC asmaka mahajanapadas or satavahana dynasty era, are 4 dolmens made of megalithic laterite in the general area of Hirapur village on NH-930 in Chimur tehsil of Chandrapur district of Maharashtra.

References

  1. ↑ Upinder Singh (2009). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century (PB). Pearson Education. p. 13. ISBN   978-93-325-6996-6.
  2. ↑ Ucko, P.J. (2005). Theory in Archaeology: A World Perspective. Taylor & Francis. p. 192. ISBN   978-1-134-84346-6 . Retrieved 10 May 2022.
  3. ↑ Cunliffe, B.W.; Colin Renfrew, B.W.C.; Cunliffe, P.E.A.I.A.O.F.B.; Davies, W.; Renfrew, C.; Davies, P.H.P.P.U.C.L.F.W.; British Academy; Renfrew, D.P.A.C.U.F.C.; Davies, P.P.E.A.P.H.W. (2002). Archaeology: The Widening Debate. British Academy centenary monographs. British Academy. p. 309. ISBN   978-0-19-726255-9.
  4. ↑ Chakrabarti, Dilip K. (1982). "The Development of Archaeology in the Indian Subcontinent". World Archaeology . Vol. 13, no. 3. pp. 326–344.
  5. ↑ "Mohenjo-daro | archaeological site, Pakistan". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2 August 2020.
  6. ↑ "Harappa | Pakistan". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2 August 2020.
  7. ↑ Trautmann and Sinopoli 2002. p. 516.
  8. ↑ Ghosh, A. (9 May 1964). "Expedition Magazine - Penn Museum". www.penn.museum. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
  9. ↑ P, Pavan (24 October 2016). "Megalith from 5000 BC found in Telangana". The Times of India.
  10. 1 2 3 4 Mayank N. Vahia; Srikumar M. Menon; Riza Abbas; Nisha Yadav. "Megaliths in Ancient India and their possible association to astronomy" (PDF). Tata Institute of Fundamental Research.
  11. ↑ Anuja, Geetali (2002). "Living Megalithic practices amongst the Madia gonds of Bhamragad, District Gadchiroli, Maharashtra". Purātattva. 32 (1): 244. Archived from the original on 10 May 2013. Retrieved 18 June 2009.
  12. 1 2 MEGALITHIC CULTURE, accessed 10 July 2021.
  13. ↑ Singh, Upinder (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India. New Delhi: Pearson Education. p. 252. ISBN   978-81-317-1120-0.
  14. ↑ Rao, K.P. "Megalithic Anthropomorphic Statues: Meaning and Significance". ResearchWorks Journal Hosting.
  15. 1 2 Sati may have existed among megalithic people, DNA India, accessed 10 July 2021.
  16. ↑ Oishi Roy, 2019, Man and Environment , Indian Society for Prehistoric and Quatemary Studies,vol XLIV, pp. 12-20.
  17. ↑ Franklin Southworth, Linguistic Archaeology of South Asia (Routledge, 2005), p. 177
  18. ↑ Uesugi, Akinori, (2018). "An Overview on the Iron Age in South Asia", in (ed.) Akinori Uesugi, Iron Age in South Asia, Kansai University, Fig. 6, pp. 9-12.
  19. ↑ The archaeological term "Iron Age" began to be commonly applied to Indian prehistory in the 1960s (N. R. Banerjee, The Iron Age in India, 1965). Note that the use of "Iron Age" for the Kali Yuga is earlier but unrelated, referencing references the mythological "Ages of Man" of Hesiod.
  20. ↑ Astha Dibyopama, Yong Jun Kim, Chang Seok Oh, Dong Hoon Shin , Vasant Shinde, 2015,, Korean Journal of Physical Anthropology, Vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 1-9.
  21. ↑ Wright, Rita P. (2009), The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy, and Society, Cambridge University Press, p. 107, ISBN   978-0-521-57219-4 Quote: "Rakhigarhi will be discussed briefly in view of the limited published material" (p 107)
  22. ↑ Sinopoli, Carla M. (2015), "Ancient South Asian cities in their regions", in Norman Yoffee (ed.), The Cambridge World History, Cambridge University Press, p. 325, ISBN   978-0-521-19008-4 Quote: "Excavations have also occurred at Rakhigarhi, but only brief notes have been published, and little information is currently available on its form and organization. (page 325)"
  23. ↑ Nath, Amarendra (31 December 2014). "Excavations at Rakhigarhi [1997-98 to 1999-2000]" (PDF). Archaeological Survey of India. Archaeological Survey of India. p. 306. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 March 2015. Retrieved 22 February 2016.
  24. 1 2 Shinde, Vasant; Green, Adam; Parmar, Narender; Sable, P. D. (2012–2013). "Rakhigarhi and the Harappan Civilization: Recent Work and New Challenges". Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute. 72/73: 48. JSTOR   43610687.
  25. ↑ Vahia, Mayank N., Pankaj Kumar, Abhijeet Bhogale, D. C. Kothari, Sundeep Chopra, Vasant Shinde, Nilesh Jadhav, and Ranvir Shastri. "Radiocarbon Dating of Charcoal Samples from Rakhigarhi, Haryana, India Using Accelerator Mass Spectrometer." Current Science 111, no. 1 (2016): 27-28. Accessed August 2, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24910004.

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