Rakhigarhi

Last updated • 13 min readFrom Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

Rakhigarhi
Rakhigarhi Harappan civilization.jpg
India Haryana relief map.svg
Archaeological site icon (red).svg
Shown within Haryana
India relief location map.jpg
Archaeological site icon (red).svg
Rakhigarhi (India)
South Asia non political, with rivers.jpg
Archaeological site icon (red).svg
Rakhigarhi (South Asia)
Alternative nameRakhi Garhi
Location Haryana, India
Coordinates 29°17′35″N76°6′51″E / 29.29306°N 76.11417°E / 29.29306; 76.11417
TypeSettlement
Area80–105 hectares (0.80–1.05 km2; 0.31–0.41 sq mi) [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [note 1]
History
Cultures Indus Valley civilization
Site notes
Excavation dates1963, 1997–2000, 2012–2016, 2021–present [web 1]

Rakhigarhi or Rakhi Garhi is a village and an archaeological site in the Hisar District of the northern Indian state of Haryana, situated about 150 km northwest of Delhi. It is located in the Ghaggar River plain, [6] some 27 km from the seasonal Ghaggar river, and belonged to the Indus Valley civilisation, being part of the pre-Harappan (7000-3300 BCE), early Harappan (3300-2600 BCE), and the mature phase (2600-1900 BCE) of the Indus Valley Civilisation. [7]

Contents

It was among the largest settlements of the ancient civilisation, and most scholars believe it to have been between 80 hectares and 100+ hectares in area. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [note 1] Other related excavation sites in the area are Mitathal and the smaller site Lohari Ragho, which are still awaiting excavation.

Initial excavations at the site happened in the 1960s, followed by further excavations in the late 1990s, however more sustained excavations have taken place in the past decade. [web 1] though much of the area is yet to be excavated [8] [web 2] and published. [9]

DNA-tests by Shinde et al. (2019) on a single skeleton show that the DNA did not include any traces of steppe ancestry, in line with the Aryan migration theory, which says that Indo-Aryans migrated to India from the steppes after the Harappan civilisation had started to disintegrate. [10]

Site characteristics

Location

It is located in the Ghaggar plain, [6] some 27 km from the seasonal Ghaggar river. Today, Rakhigarhi is a small village in Haryana State, India. [web 3] According to Jane McIntosh, Rakhigarhi is located in the valley of the prehistoric Drishadvati River that originated in Siwalik Hills. [11] Chautang is a tributary of Sarsuti river which in turn is a tributary of Ghaggar river. [web 4] [web 5]

Site size and number of mounds

Most scholars, including Gregory Possehl, Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, Raymond Allchin and Rita P. Wright believe Rakhigari to have been between 80 hectares and 100+ hectares in size. [4] [3] [1] [5] [6] [2] [note 1] According to Nath et al. (2015), "[a]rchaeological remains at Rakhigari extend over a radius of [300 hectares (3.0 km2)] encompassing a set of seven mounds of which 1 to 5 are integrated while a few are removed from each other." [12]

The mounds are numbered following the naming convention of "RGR-x" e.g. RGR-1 to RGR-11. [web 6] Until 2014, seven mounds were known. The 2014 excavation discovered two more mounds, RGR-8 and RGR-9, situated east and west of the main site, and largely destroyed for cultivation. According to Vasant Shinde each mound has a size of 25 hectares, taking the total site size to 350 hectares (3.5 km2), and thus making Rakhigarhi largest Indus Valley Civilisation site by overtaking Mohenjodaro (300 hectares) by 50 hectares. [web 7] [web 8] The 2016 excavation claimed to have found two more mounds, RGR-10 and RGR-11, making the total number of mounds 11. [web 8]

Dating

According to Garge Tejas the earliest settlements in Rakhigarhi predate the Indus Valley Civilization. [7] According to Possehl not all mounds in Rakhigarhi belong to the same Indus Valley settlement, stating that "RGR-6, a Sothi-Siswal site known as Arda, was probably a separate settlement." [1] Mounds RGR1 to RGR-6 are residential sites belonging to "pre-formation age early Harappan" era, while mound RGR-7 is a burial site where human skeletons were found. [web 9]

ASI has carbon dated mound labelled RGR-1, RGR-2, RGR-6 and RGR-7. The RGR-6 has two layers of Preharappan Phase dating to 5,640 years before present (BP) and 5,440 (BP). The RGR-1 has Early Harappan Phase dating to 5,200 and 4,570 years BP. The RGR-2 also has Early Harappan Phase dated to 5,200 and 4,570 years as well as two additional samples belonging to Mature Harappan Phase dating to 4,040 and 3,900 years BP. [web 9] RGR-7, which is a cemetery or a burial site from Mature Harappan Phase, dates back to 4600 BP. [10] [web 10]

In 2014 six radiocarbon datings from excavations at Rakhigarhi between 1997 and 2000 were published by archaeologist Amarendra Nath, corresponding to the Pre-formative, Early Harappan, and Mature Harappan phases. Mound RGR-6 revealed a Pre-formative stage designated as Sothi Phase with the following two datings: and years before present, converted to B.C.E. and B.C.E. [13]

Nearby sites and cultures

Rakhigarhi, being the largest town and regional trade centre of IVC era, is surrounded by numerous IVC sites nearby in Haryana, Rajasthan and Punjab along the Gagghar-Hakra river course. The important ones among those are the Bhirrana (4 phases of IVC with earliest dated to 8th-7th millennium BCE) 86 km northwest, [14] [15] Kunal (belonging to Kunal cultural which is the cultural ancestor of Rehman Dheri site) 75 km northwest, [16] [17] Siswal (belonging to Sothi-Siswal culture dated to 3800 BC, contemporaneous to Early-Harappan Phase) 75 km west, [18] [19] and Kalibangan (another large regional IVC city with several phases starting from Early harappan phase) 235 km west, [20] and few more.

There are many other important archaeological sites in this area, in the old river valley to the east of the Ghaggar Plain. Among them are Kalibangan, Kunal, Balu, Bhirrana, and Banawali. [13]

Excavations

By 2020, only 5% of the site had been excavated by the ASI and Deccan College. [web 2]

Chronology of excavations

While the earliest excavation of IVC sites started from Harappa in 1921-1922 and Mohenjo-daro in 1931, the excavations at Rakhigarhi were first carried out in 1969, followed by more excavations in 1997–98, 1998–99 and 1999–2000, between 2011–16 and 2021 onward. There are 11 mounds in Rakhigarhi which are named RGR-1 to RGR-11, of which RGR-5 is thickly populated by establishment of Rakhishahpur village and is not available for excavations. RGR-1 to RGR-3, RGR6 to RGR9 and some part of RGR-4 are available for excavations. [web 6] [web 8] [21] [web 7] [web 9]

In 1963, Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) began excavations at this site, and, though little has been published about the excavations. [22] [23]

In 1969, Kurukshetra University's team studied and documented the site led by its Dean of Indic studies Dr. Suraj Bhan. [24]

In 1997–98, 1998–99 and 1999–2000, ASI team began to excavate the site again, which was led by its director Dr. Amrender Nath who published his findings in scholarly journals. [24] [25] After 2000, excavations were stopped for years because of a CBI investigation on the misuse of funds. [26] Much of the findings are donated to the National Museum, New Delhi.

From 2011 to 2016, Deccan College carried out several substantial excavations led by its then Vice-Chancellor and archaeologist Dr. Vasant Shinde, several members of the team published their findings in various academic journals. [27] [28]

From 2021 onward, more excavation by ASI commenced. Central University of Haryana and Dr Vasant Shinde also expressed interest in commencing excavation. [web 9]

Discoveries

The skeleton of a female found at Rakhigarhi and now on display in the National Museum. Skeleton harappa.JPG
The skeleton of a female found at Rakhigarhi and now on display in the National Museum.

Findings confirm both early and mature Harappan phases and include 4,600-year-old human skeletons, fortification and bricks. [web 2]

Planned city

The ASI's detailed excavation of the site revealed the size of the lost city and recovered numerous artefacts, some over 5,000 years old. Rakhigarhi was occupied at Early Harappan times. [8] [21] Evidence of paved roads, drainage system, large rainwater collection, storage system, terracotta bricks, statue production, and skilled working of bronze and precious metals have been uncovered.[ citation needed ] Jewellery, including bangles made from terracotta, conch shells, gold, and semi-precious stones, have also been found. [29]

Digging so far reveals a well planned city with 1.92 m wide roads, a bit wider than in Kalibangan. The pottery is similar to Kalibangan and Banawali. Pits surrounded by walls have been found, which are thought to be for sacrificial or some religious ceremonies. There are brick lined drains to handle sewage from the houses. Terracotta statues, weights, bronze artefacts, comb, copper fish hooks, needles and terracotta seals have also been found. A bronze vessel has been found which is decorated with gold and silver. A gold foundry with about 3000 unpolished semi-precious stones has been found. Many tools used for polishing these stones and a furnace were found there. A burial site has been found with 11 skeletons, with their heads in the north direction. Near the heads of these skeletons, utensils for everyday use were kept. The three female skeletons have shell bangles on their left wrists. Near one female skeleton, a gold armlet has been found. In addition semi precious stones have been found lying near the head, suggesting that they were part of some sort of necklace.

Granary

A granary belonging to mature Harappan phase (2600 BCE to 2000 BCE) has been found here. Granary is made up of mud-bricks with a floor of ramped earth plastered with mud. It has 7 rectangular or square chambers. Significant traces of lime & decomposed grass are found on the lower portion of the granary wall indicating that it can also be the storehouse of grains with lime used as insecticide & grass used to prevent entry of moisture. Looking at the size, it appears to be a public granary or a private granary of elites. [30]

Tools

Hunting tools like copper hafts and fish hooks have been found here. Presence of various toys like mini wheels, miniature lids, sling balls, animal figurines indicates a prevalence of toy culture. Signs of flourishing trade can be seen by the excavation of stamps, jewellery and 'chert' weights. Weights found here are similar to weights found at many other IVC sites confirming presence of standardised weight systems. [31]

Culture, clothing and worship

Fire altars and apsidal structures were revealed in Rakhigarhi. [web 6] [ dead link ]

Cotton cloth traces preserved on silver or bronze objects were known from Rakhigarhi, Chanhudaro and Harappa. [32] An impressive[ quantify ] number of stamps seals were also found at this site. [8]

Cemetery and burial sites

A cemetery of Mature Harappan period is discovered at Rakhigarhi, with eight graves found. Often brick covered grave pits had wooden coffin in one case. [8] Different type of grave pits were undercut to form an earthen overhang and body was placed below this; and then top of grave was filled with bricks to form a roof structure over the grave. [9]

So far 53 burial sites with 46 skeletons have been discovered. Anthropological examination done on 37 skeletons revealed 17 to be of adults, 8 to be of subadults while the age of 12 skeletons could not be verified. Sex detection of 17 skeletons was successful out of which 7 were male and 10 female skeletons. Most of the burials were typical burials with skeletons in a supine position. Atypical burials had skeletons in a prone position. Some graves are just pits while some are brick lined and contain pottery. Some of them also had votive pots with animal remains symbolising offerings to the dead. Bone remains of secondary burials were not charred hence ruling out the possibility of cremation practices. While these burials retained many of the Harappan features, group burials and prone position burials are distinct. Paleo-parasitical studies and DNA analysis to determine the lineage is being undertaken. [33] [34]

Parasite eggs which were once existed in the stomach of those buried were found in the burial sites along with human skeletons. Analysis of Human aDNA obtained from human bones as well as analysis of parasite and animal DNA will be done to assert origins of these people. [35] [36]

Skeleton finds

In April 2015, four 4,600-year-old complete human skeletons were excavated from mound RGR-7. These skeletons belonged to two male adults, one female adult (classified as 'I6113') and one child. [10] Pottery with grains of food as well as shell bangles were found around these skeletons. [37] [web 2]

Searchtool.svg Photo of the skeleton of "Rakhigarhi love birds" buried together with male (11A) facing the woman (11B), with their feet pointing south and head towards north. [38]

Two of the skeletons, a man between 35 and 40 years old and women in early 20s, who died around the same time. They were found buried together side by side with men's head facing the women. Their ceremonial burial indicates that they were not in illicit relationship and the lovebirds were likely married to each other. Pots found in their grave likely carried food and water as offering to the dead. The agate found near he collar bone of the male was likely part of a necklace. [39] [38] The male was 177 cm (5 ft 9+12 in) tall and female was 171 cm (5 ft 7+12 in). Their skeleton had no abnormalities, injuries or sign of disease. They were both likely "quite healthy" at the time of their death. [40]

Shinde et al. (2019) have carried out DNA-tests on a single skeleton. Results announced in September 2018, and a paper published in Cell Magazine in 2019, show that the DNA did not include any traces of steppe ancestry, which is in line with the Aryan migration theory, which says that Indo-Aryans migrated to India from the steppes after the Harappan civilisation had started to disintegrate. [10] [41] [42]

A total of 61 skeletons were found till 2016.[ citation needed ] As the skeletons were excavated scientifically without any contamination, archaeologists think that with the help of latest technology on these skeletons and DNA obtained, it is possible to determine how Harappans looked like 4500 years ago. [web 10] The average height is estimated to have been 175.8 cm (5 ft 9 in) for men and 166.1 cm (5 ft 5+12 in) for women. [43]

In 2024, the 'Mound 7' of the excavation site, which encompasses an area of 3.5 sqkms, yielded 56 skeletons. [44]

Site conservation and development

Endangered heritage site

In May 2012, the Global Heritage Fund declared Rakhigarhi one of the ten most endangered heritage sites in Asia facing the threat of irreparable loss and destruction due to development pressures, insufficient management and looting. [web 8] [45] A 2012 study by the Sunday Times found that the site is not being looked after; the iron boundary wall is broken, and villagers sell the artefacts they dig out of the site and parts of site are now being encroached by private houses. [46] Due to the lack of site protection the site is being destroyed by soil erosion, encroachments, illegal sand lifting, theft of archaeological artefacts for illegal sale. It is a punishable crime to sell or buy artefacts found in the ancient sites. 80% of mound 6 – a residential site of Harappan Era and 7 which is a burial site where 4 human skeletons were recovered in 2015 have been destroyed due to cultivation and soil mining. [web 8]

Site encroachments

Parts of mounds R4 and R5 have been encroached by the villagers who have built 152 houses. [web 2] The ASI has only 83.5 acres of the 350-hectare site that entails 11 archaeological mounds, due to encroachments and pending court cases for the removal of the encroachments. [web 2]

Site rehabilitation and preservation

In February 2020, Union Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman announced that the site of Rakhigarhi would be developed as an iconic site. [47] ASI has commenced the plan to remove encroachments from the site, including 152 houses on the R4 and R5 mounds. Villages, whose houses in the site will be removed, will be relocated and rehabilitated in the housing flats on another location. [web 2]

Site museum and lake

Rakhigarhi, which is an Indus Valley civilisation site, also has a museum developed by the state government. [48] There is also Haryana Rural Antique Museum 60 km away, which is maintained by CCS HAU in its Gandhi Bhawan, exhibits evolution of agriculture and vanishing antiques. [49] Jahaj Kothi Museum, named after George Thomas, is located inside Firoz Shah Palace Complex and maintained by Archaeological Survey of India. [50]

To develop Rakhigarhi as the global heritage, two johad (water bodies) across the road to museum are developed as lakes. The lake has been deepened by digging and traditional ghats with burji on the banks of lake have been constructed. A park is developed the spare land of the lake. A walking track around the lake, with shady trees and fruit trees, has been constructed for the tourists. [51] The traditional ghats represent the past scenario when paleo-Drishadvati river use to flow through Rakhigarhi which had ghats for transporting goods for trade, via Lothal port and Dholavira, as far as Mesopotamia (ancient cities of Elam and Sumer). [52]

See also

Notes

  1. 1 2 3 Size:
    • Allchin & Erdosy 1995, p. 78: "Rakhigarhi at 80 hectares is the largest site followed by Banawali at 25 hectares."
    • Kenoyer 1998, p. 49: "Within a few hundred years the thriving town had grown six times larger, covering an area of over 150 hectares [...] civilization: Mohenjo-daro (+200 ha), Harappa (+ 150 ha), Ganweriwala and Rakhigarhi (+80 ha) and Dholavira (100 ha)."
    • Possehl 2002, p. 72: "The site is about 17 meters in height. The southern face of the mounds is rather abrupt and steep. The northern side slopes down to the surrounding plain. The contours of the site have led the excavator to divide up the place into five mounds (RGR-1 through 5). RGR-6, a Sothi-Siswal site known as Arda, was probably a separate settlement. I have visited Rakhigarhi and believe that it is 80 hectares in size."
    • Heitzman 2008, p. 35: "They include Mohenjodaro (with a city core of about 100 hectares, and suburbs possibly covering more than 200 hectares) in Sind; Harappa (more than 150 hectares) in the center of Pakistani Punjab; Dholavira (more than 100 hectares) in Gujarat; Ganweriwala (82 hectares) in Pakistani Punjab near the border with Rajasthan; and Rakhigarhi (between 80 and 105 hectares) in Haryana."
    • Wright 2009, p. 133: "Rakhigarhi was over 100 hectares in size."
    • Coningham & Young 2015, p. 183 Quote: Mohenjo-daro covered an area of more than 250 hectares, Harappa exceeded 150 hectares, Dholavira 100 hectares and Ganweriwala and Rakhigarhi around 80 hectares each."

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indus Valley Civilisation</span> Bronze Age civilisation in South Asia

The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), also known as the Indus Civilisation, was a Bronze Age civilisation in the northwestern regions of South Asia, lasting from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE, and in its mature form from 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE. Together with ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, it was one of three early civilisations of the Near East and South Asia, and of the three, the most widespread, its sites spanning an area including much of modern day Pakistan, northwestern India and northeast Afghanistan. The civilisation flourished both in the alluvial plain of the Indus River, which flows through the length of Pakistan, and along a system of perennial monsoon-fed rivers that once coursed in the vicinity of the Ghaggar-Hakra, a seasonal river in northwest India and eastern Pakistan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kalibangan</span> Town on the banks of the Ghaggar River in India

Kalibangān is a town located at 29.47°N 74.13°E on the left or southern banks of the Ghaggar in Tehsil Pilibangān, between Suratgarh and Hanumangarh in Hanumangarh District, Rajasthan, India 205 km. from Bikaner. It is also identified as being established in the triangle of land at the confluence of Drishadvati and Sarasvati Rivers. The prehistoric and pre-Mauryan character of Indus Valley civilization was first identified by Luigi Tessitori at this site. Kalibangan's excavation report was published in its entirety in 2003 by the Archaeological Survey of India, 34 years after the completion of excavations. The report concluded that Kalibangan was a major provincial capital of the Indus Valley Civilization. Kalibangan is distinguished by its unique fire altars and "world's earliest attested ploughed field". It is around 2900 BC that the region of Kalibangan developed into what can be considered a planned city.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kot Diji</span> Archeological site that predates the Indus Civilization

Kot Diji is an ancient site which was part of the Indus Valley Civilization, estimated to have been occupied around 3300 BCE. Located about 45 km (28 mi) south of Khairpur in the modern-day province of Sindh, Pakistan, it is on the east bank of the Indus River opposite Mohenjo-daro. The remains consist of two parts: the citadel area on the high ground, and the area around it. The Pakistan Department of Archaeology excavated at Kot Diji in 1955 and 1957.

Rehman Dheri or sometime Rahman Dheri is a Pre-Harappan Archaeological Site situated near Dera Ismail Khan in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. This is one of the oldest urbanised centres found to date in South Asia. Dated, the site is situated 22 kilometres (14 mi) north of Dera Ismail Khan. It is on the Tentative List for future World Heritage Sites in Pakistan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amri, Sindh</span> Ancient settlement in Sindh province of Pakistan

Amri is an ancient settlement in modern-day Sindh, Pakistan, that goes back to 3600 BCE. The site is located south of Mohenjo Daro on Hyderabad-Dadu Road more than 100 kilometres north of Hyderabad, Pakistan.

Amri–Nal culture is attributed to Amri archaeological sites in Sindh and Balochistan provinces of Pakistan. It flourished in the 4th and 3rd millennia BC. The dual typesites are Amri and Sohr Damb area in Naal, Balochistan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pottery in the Indian subcontinent</span>

Pottery in the Indian subcontinent has an ancient history and is one of the most tangible and iconic elements of Indian art. Evidence of pottery has been found in the early settlements of Lahuradewa and later the Indus Valley Civilisation. Today, it is a cultural art that is still practiced extensively in the subcontinent. Until recent times all Indian pottery has been earthenware, including terracotta.

Banawali is an archaeological site belonging to the Indus Valley civilization period in Fatehabad district, Haryana, India and is located about 120 km northeast of Kalibangan and 16 km from Fatehabad. Banawali, which is earlier called Vanavali, is on the left banks of dried up Sarasvati River. Comparing to Kalibangan, which was a town established in lower middle valley of dried up Sarasvathi River, Banawali was built over upper middle valley of Sarasvati River.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bhirrana</span> Archaeological site and village in Haryana, India

Bhirrana, also Bhirdana and Birhana, is an archaeological site, located in a small village in the Fatehabad district of the north Indian state of Haryana. Bhirrana's earliest archaeological layers predates the Indus Valley civilisation times, dating to the 8th-7th millennium BCE. The site is one of the many sites seen along the channels of the seasonal Ghaggar river, identified by ASI archeologists to be the Rigvedic Saraswati river.

Farmana Khas or Daksh Khera is an archaeological site in Meham block of Rohtak district in northern Indian state of Haryana spread over 18.5 hectares. It is located near the village of Farmana Khas, about 15 kilometers from the Rohtak-Hissar highway and 60 kilometres from Delhi. It is significant particularly for its burial site, with 70 burials, of the Mature Harappan period (2500–2000 BC) and fairly recent addition to Indus Valley civilisation sites excavated in India.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Siswal</span> Village in Haryana, India

Siswal is a village in Hisar district, Haryana, India. It located 28 km from Hisar city. It is a site of Chalcolithic age. It is a typesite for Siswal culture, dating from around 3800 BC, also known as Sothi–Siswal culture.

Bara Culture was a culture that emerged in the eastern region of the Indus Valley civilization around 2000 BCE. It developed in the doab between the Yamuna and Sutlej rivers, hemmed on its eastern periphery by the Shivalik ranges of the lower Himalayas. This territory corresponds to modern-day Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh in North India. Older publications regard the Baran pottery to have initially developed independently of the Harappan culture branch of the Indus Valley Civilization from a pre-Harappan tradition, although the two cultures later intermingled in locations such as Kotla Nihang Khan and Bara, Punjab. According to Akinori Uesugi and Vivek Dangi, Bara pottery is a stylistic development of Late Harappan pottery. In the conventional timeline demarcations of the Indus Valley Tradition, the Bara culture is usually placed in the Late Harappan period.

Mitathal is a village and Indus Valley civilization (IVC) Archaeological sites in the Bhiwani tehsil of the Bhiwani district in the Indian state of Haryana. Part of Hisar division, it lies 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) north of the district headquarters Bhiwani and 249 kilometres (155 mi) from the state capital Chandigarh. As of the 2011 Census of India, the village had 1,448 households with a total population of 7,434 of which 4,002 were male and 3,432 female.

Lohari Ragho is a village and Indus Valley civilization archaeological site, located in Hisar district of the Haryana state in India. It has 3 separate mounds, each 1 to 1.5 km apart within the peripheral suburban zone of Rakhigarhi city cite, where artifacts belonging to Mature Harappan and Sothi-Siswal cultural period have been confirmed based on filed visits. These mounds, unprotected and under risk of encroachment and threat of obliteration, are yet to be excavated, fenced, protected or conserved.

Kunal is a pre-Harappan Indus Valley civilisation settlement located, just 30 km from Fatehabad City in Fatehabad district of Haryana state in India. Compared to other IVC sites, such as cities like Rakhigarhi and towns like Kalibangan, Kunal site was a village. Excavation at Kunal show 3 successive phases of Pre-Harappan indigenous culture on the Saraswati river who also traded with Kalibanga and Lothal. Kunal, along with its other contemporary sites Bhirrana and Rakhigarhi on Sarasvati-Ghaggar river system, is recognised as the oldest Pre-Harappan settlement, with Kunal being an older cultural ancestor to Rehman Dheri in Pakistan< which is on the Tentative List for future World Heritage Sites.

Tigrana is a village and Indus Valley civilisation (IVC) archaeological sites in the Bhiwani district of Haryana state of India. It lies on the NH-709A approximately 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) north of the district headquarters town of Bhiwani.

The Rakhigarhi Indus Valley civilisation museum, with a research center and hostel for researchers, is a proposed museum to be built in Rakhigarhi village in Hisar district of Haryana state in India.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sohr Damb</span> Archaeological site in Pakistan

Sohr Damb, c. 3800–2300 BC, is an archaeological site, located near Nal, in central Balochistan, Pakistan that begins before the Indus Valley civilization featuring Togau, Kili Ghul Mohammad, and Kechi Beg pottery styles. It has also been known as Naal, Balochistan, and gave its name to the prehistoric Amri-Nal culture, which is attributed to the dual typesites of Amri and Nal.

Sothi is an early archaeological site of the Indus Valley civilization dating to around 4600 BCE, located in the Hanumangarh District of Rajasthan, India, at a distance of about 10 km southwest of Nohar railway station.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 Possehl (2002), p. 72.
  2. 1 2 3 Coningham & Young (2015), p. 183.
  3. 1 2 3 Kenoyer (1998), p. 49.
  4. 1 2 3 Allchin & Erdosy (1995), p. 78.
  5. 1 2 3 Heitzman (2008), p. 35.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 Wright (2009), p. 133.
  7. 1 2 Garge (2010), p. 15.
  8. 1 2 3 4 Possehl (2002), pp. 63, 71, 72.
  9. 1 2 McIntosh (2008), p. 215, 293.
  10. 1 2 3 4 Shinde et al. (2019).
  11. McIntosh (2008), p. 76.
  12. Nath et al. (2015).
  13. 1 2 Nath, Garge & Law (2014), p. 84.
  14. Mani (2008), p. 237-238.
  15. Sarkar et al. (2016), p. 2-3.
  16. Charles Keith Maisels, Early Civilizations of the Old World: The Formative Histories of Egypt, The Levant, Mesopotamia, India and China. Routledge, 2003 ISBN   1134837305
  17. Archaeological Survey of, India (2004). "Excavations at Kunal,Haryana" (PDF). Indian Archaeology 1998-99 a Review: 11–12. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 May 2012. Retrieved 13 July 2012.
  18. Garge (2010), pp. 15–40.
  19. The Harappan Civilisation: Its Sub-cultures, Daily Pioneer, 10 May 2018.
  20. Kulke, Herman (2004). History of India. Routledge. p. 25. ISBN   9780415329200.
  21. 1 2 "Harappan Surprises". Frontline. 13 June 2014. Retrieved 14 March 2018.
  22. Wright (2009), p. 107.
  23. Sinopoli, Carla M. (2015), "Ancient South Asian cities in their regions", in Norman Yoffee (ed.), The Cambridge World History, Cambridge University Press, p. 325, ISBN   978-0-521-19008-4 Quote: "Excavations have also occurred at Rakhigarhi, but only brief notes have been published, and little information is currently available on its form and organization. (page 325)"
  24. 1 2 Bhartesh Singh Thakur, "Former Archaeological Survey director sentenced to jail for fraud", Hindustan Times, 15 October 2015.
  25. Nath, Amarendra (31 December 2014). "Excavations at Rakhigarhi [1997-98 to 1999-2000]" (PDF). Archaeological Survey of India. p. 306. Retrieved 22 February 2016.
  26. "Former Archaeological Survey director sentenced to jail for fraud". Hindustan Times. 15 October 2015. Retrieved 6 January 2016.
  27. Dhiman, Kuldip (3 July 2016). "Engulfed in the labyrinths of time". The Tribune .
  28. Shinde et al. (2012), p. 48.
  29. Chandigarh Newsline, 2/23/2007, 'Rakhigarhi is the Largest Harappan Site Ever Found'
  30. "Ancient granary found in Haryana". The Hindu. 2 May 2014.
  31. "Dig this! 5,000-yr-old skeletons found in Hisar". Hindustan Times. 15 April 2015. Archived from the original on 15 April 2015.
  32. McIntosh (2008), p. 293, 333.
  33. "Mysteries of Rakhigarhi's Harappan Necropolis: In burials from 4,000 years ago, women both exalted, condemned". The Indian Express. 26 March 2018.
  34. Shinde, Vasant S.; Kim, Yong Jun; Woo, Eun Jin; Jadhav, Nilesh; Waghmare, Pranjali; Yadav, Yogesh; Munshi, Avradeep; Chatterjee, Malavika; Panyam, Amrithavalli (21 February 2018). "Archaeological and anthropological studies on the Harappan cemetery of Rakhigarhi, India". PLOS ONE. 13 (2): e0192299. Bibcode:2018PLoSO..1392299S. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0192299 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   5821334 . PMID   29466426.
  35. "Scientists to study parasite eggs in Harappan graves". The Times of India. 12 January 2014.
  36. "Biomedical Studies on Archaeology". 19 February 2014.
  37. "Dig this! 5,000-yr-old skeletons found in Hisar". Hindustan Times. 15 April 2015. Archived from the original on 15 April 2015.
  38. 1 2 Vasant Shinde1, et al, 2018, A young couple's grave found in the Rakhigarhi cemetery of the Harappan Civilization, Anatomy & Cell Biology, vol 51 (3), pp. 200-204.
  39. Ancient lovers found in Indian burial site mystify and intrigue archaeologists, CNN, 10 January 2019.
  40. Harappa grave of ancient 'couple' reveals secrets, BBC, 9 January 2019.
  41. Bal, Hartosh Singh (30 September 2019). "What media reporting on ancient DNA results says about our times". The Caravan. Retrieved 7 December 2019.
  42. Mahalakshmi, R. (October 2019). "DNA analysis of Harappan skeleton from Rakhigarhi: Thin evidence". Frontline. Retrieved 7 December 2019.
  43. Nath A., Walimbe S.R., Garge T.M., Mushrif-Tripathy V., Dehuri R., and Malik A. (2015) Harappan interments at Rakhigarhi, Haryana. Man and Environment, XL: 9–32.
  44. Chakrabarty, Sreeparna (7 May 2024). "The 4,600-year-old woman from Rakhigarhi". The Hindu. Retrieved 21 July 2024.
  45. "Rakhigarhi likely to be developed into a world heritage site". India Today. 31 March 2013. Retrieved 8 August 2013.
  46. Archana, Khare Ghose (3 June 2012). "Can Rakhigarhi, the largest Indus Valley Civilisation site be saved?". Sunday Times . Archived from the original on 23 May 2013. Retrieved 5 June 2012.
  47. Maanav, Sushil (2 February 2020). "Rakhigarhi to be developed as iconic site". The Tribune. Retrieved 20 July 2024.
  48. Sura, Ajay (13 February 2016). "Harappan museum at Rakhigarhi". The Times of India. Retrieved 20 July 2024.
  49. "Gazetteer of India Haryana, Hisar" (PDF). revenueharyana.gov.in. Government OF Haryana. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 May 2014. Retrieved 31 May 2016.
  50. Jahaj Kothi museum
  51. Lake being built in Rakhigarhi (english translation of original hindi news "चंडीगढ़ की सुखना लेक की तर्ज पर राखीगढ़ी में बन रही झील"), Dainik Jagran, 16 September 2021.
  52. DNA analysis of Harappan skeleton from Rakhigarhi: Thin evidence, Frontline, 11 October 2019.

Sources

Printed sources
Web-sources
  1. 1 2 Ahluwalia, Disha (6 March 2023). "Why are we digging Rakhigarhi a 9th time? This Harappan site is a gift that keeps giving". The Print . Retrieved 12 April 2023.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Damini Nath (2020), At Haryana's Harappan site of Rakhigarhi, anxiety trumps history, The Hindu, 27 February 2020.
  3. Census of India, 2011
  4. "Rivers in Ambala, Markanda River Ambala, Tangri River Ambala". www.ambalaonline.in. Retrieved 17 April 2020.
  5. Chopra, Sanjeev (25 September 2010). "Overflowing Ghaggar, Tangri inundate some villages along Punjab-Haryana border". The Indian Express. Retrieved 9 April 2017.
  6. 1 2 3 Archaeological Survey of, India. "Indian Archaeology 1997-98" (PDF). Excavation at Rakhigarhi. Archaeological Survey of INdia. Retrieved 17 July 2012.
  7. 1 2 Subramanian, T. S. (27 March 2014). "Rakhigarhi, the biggest Harappan site". The Hindu.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 Deepender Deswal (2015), Rakhigarhi site being plundered due to lack of protection, The Tribune India, 16 April 2015.
  9. 1 2 3 4 Deepender Deswal (2018), Harappan site in Hisar draws interest of archaeologists, The Tribune India, 18 September 2021.
  10. 1 2 T.S. Subramanian (2015), "Virtual Harappans to come alive". The Hindu. 3 May 2015. Archived from the original on 20 September 2019.