Arrau turtle

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Arrau turtle
Podocnemis expansa INPA.jpg
Podocnemis expansa head from Venezolana.jpg
CITES Appendix II (CITES) [2]
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Testudines
Suborder: Pleurodira
Family: Podocnemididae
Genus: Podocnemis
Species:
P. expansa
Binomial name
Podocnemis expansa
(Schweigger, 1812)
Arrau (Podocnemis expansa).PNG
Synonyms
  • Emys expansa Schweigger, 1812
  • Emys amazonica Spix, 1824
  • Podocnemis expansa Wagler, 1830
  • Emys arrau Schinz, 1833

The Arrau turtle (Podocnemis expansa), also known as the South American river turtle, giant South American turtle, giant Amazon River turtle, Arrau sideneck turtle, Amazon River turtle or simply the Arrau, [1] [3] [4] [5] is the largest of the side-neck turtles (Pleurodira) and the largest freshwater turtle in Latin America. [5] The species primarily feeds on plant material and typically nests in large groups on beaches. [5] Due to hunting of adults, collecting of their eggs, pollution, habitat loss, and dams, the Arrau turtle is seriously threatened. [5] [6] [7] [8]

Contents

Range and habitat

Arrau turtles are found in the Amazon, Orinoco and Essequibo basins in Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela and Guyana. [4] On occasion, typically after floods, individuals turn up in Trinidad. [5] They are found in deep rivers, ponds, freshwater lagoons and flooded forest [5] in white-, black- and clear-water. [9]

Appearance

Adult at Krefeld Zoo, Germany Podocnemis expansa in Zoo Krefeld (1).JPG
Adult at Krefeld Zoo, Germany

Arrau turtles can reach up to 90 kg (200 lb) in weight and the carapace length is up to 1.07 m (3.5 ft). [10] Most individuals are considerably smaller with the average adult female having a carapace length of 64–71 cm (2.1–2.3 ft) and the average adult male 40–50 cm (1.3–1.6 ft). [5] In addition to an overall smaller size, males can be recognized by their longer tail and straighter carapace than the females. [10] Arrau turtles are brown, gray or olive-green, [10] but the exact color varies depending on the algae growing on the carapace. [5]

Behavior

Feeding

Adult Arrau turtles feed almost entirely on plant material such as fruits, seeds, leaves, legumes and algae, [5] [10] but may also take freshwater sponges, eggs and carcasses of dead animals (such as dead fish). [5] Captives have been recorded feeding on meat. [10] [11] Juveniles feed on fish and plant material. [5] The species is mainly active during the day. [5]

Breeding and life cycle

Young in Venezuela Tortuga-arrau.jpg
Young in Venezuela

When nearing the breeding season, Arrau turtles migrate to certain sites where the eggs are laid. [10] In some locations nesting occurs in large groups on beaches, [10] which reduces the risk posed by predators. [5] Some beaches have as many as 500 nesting females. [11] Mating occurs in the water. [11] During and just before the nesting season the species frequently basks, typically in groups. It is suspected that the additional heat accelerates the ovulation in the females. [12] At other times the species is generally not found on land. [12] When on land, it is usually very shy and retreats to the water at the slightest hint of danger. [5] The female lays an average of 75–123 eggs (average varies depending on region), [8] which are placed during the night in a 60–80 cm (2.0–2.6 ft) deep nest that is dug on the beach. [5] The eggs are laid during the low water season and hatch as the water starts to rise. If it rises too fast or too early, the nest is flooded and the young die within the eggs. [8] As long as nests are not dug up by predators, the hatching success rate is usually high, averaging at 83%. [8] The eggs hatch after about 50 days and the sex of the young depends on the nest temperature (females at higher temperatures, males at lower). [5] [10] When hatching, the young are around 5 cm (2 in) long and dart directly for the water, but they emerge to the attentions of many predators so that only about five percent ever reach the adult feeding grounds. [13] When hatching, the females emit sounds which attract the young; they stay together for a period in the flooded forests. [14] Vocalizations appear to play an important role in the social life of this turtle and in addition to the "connect to newly hatched young" sound, four primary sounds have been documented during the nesting season: one used during migration, one before basking, one when nesting at night and finally one when in the water after nesting. [14]

They can reach an age of 20 years or more in the wild, and captives have lived for at least 25 years. [5] Based on certain scientific models it has been estimated that the largest individuals perhaps are as old as 80 years. [15]

Conservation status

Facility for raising Arrau turtles in Venezuela Tanque Australiano.JPG
Facility for raising Arrau turtles in Venezuela

The Arrau turtle is widespread and was not considered threatened overall by the IUCN in 1996 (the year of the last full review), [1] but it has declined drastically, [12] and a draft review by the IUCN Species Survival Commission—Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group in 2011 recommended that it should be considered critically endangered. [4] The species is slow to mature; some have suggested that females reach maturity when 4–8 years old [5] and others have suggested about 17 years old. [15] Their social behavior, especially at certain nesting beaches, makes them and their eggs vulnerable to humans. [5] In addition to being used for food, they are sometimes used in traditional medicine. [9] At the main known nesting beaches, it is estimated that the number of nests fell from 34,000 in 1963 to 4,700 in 1981. [5] In the middle Orinoco River alone, it is estimated that as many as 330,000 nested in 1800, but less than half this number nested in 1945 and by the early 2000s (decade) it had fallen to 700–1300. [6] In addition to hunting and collecting of their eggs, threats include pollution, habitat loss, [5] and dams, which can cause flooding of nest sites. [8] Several countries in their range have implemented laws protecting the species, but hunting and egg collection (even if illegal) continues. [16] [17] A number of conservation projects have been initiated. For example, 54 nesting beaches have been protected in Brazil, [5] beaches used by more than 1,000 females are protected in Colombia, [7] and since the mid-1990s many thousand eggs have been collected in Venezuela for safe incubation, the hatchlings "headstarted" (getting them through the most dangerous period) and then released. [6] [16] All species in the genus Podocnemis are listed on CITES Appendix II. [4]

The slow growth limits its potential for major commercial turtle farming. [17] Nevertheless, about 880,000 turtles of various species were kept at 92 farms (both ones that are commercial and ones with conservation purpose) in 2004 in Brazil alone, [18] and some of these keep Arrau turtles, also in semi-intensive farm systems. [19]

Related Research Articles

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Sea turtles, sometimes called marine turtles, are reptiles of the order Testudines and of the suborder Cryptodira. The seven existing species of sea turtles are the flatback, green, hawksbill, leatherback, loggerhead, Kemp's ridley, and olive ridley. Six of the seven sea turtle species, all but the flatback, are present in U.S. waters, and are listed as endangered and/or threatened under the Endangered Species Act. All but the flatback turtle are listed as threatened with extinction globally on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The flatback turtle is found only in the waters of Australia, Papua New Guinea, and Indonesia.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Podocnemididae</span> Family of turtles

Podocnemididae is a family of pleurodire (side-necked) turtles, once widely distributed. Most of its 20 genera and 30 species are now extinct. Seven of its eight surviving species are native to South America: the genus Peltocephalus, with only one species ; and the genus Podocnemis, with six living species of South American side-necked river turtles. There is also one genus native to Madagascar: Erymnochelys, the Madagascan big-headed turtle, whose single species E. madagascariensis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mata mata</span> Species of freshwater turtle

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Green sea turtle</span> Species of large sea reptile

The green sea turtle, also known as the green turtle, black (sea) turtle or Pacific green turtle, is a species of large sea turtle of the family Cheloniidae. It is the only species in the genus Chelonia. Its range extends throughout tropical and subtropical seas around the world, with two distinct populations in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, but it is also found in the Indian Ocean. The common name refers to the usually green fat found beneath its carapace, not to the color of its carapace, which is olive to black.

<i>Podocnemis</i> Genus of turtles

Podocnemis is a genus of aquatic turtles, commonly known as South American river turtles, in the family Podocnemididae. The genus consists of six extant species occurring in tropical South America. Three additional species are known only from fossils.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Big-headed Amazon River turtle</span> Species of turtle

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hoge's side-necked turtle</span> Species of side necked turtle

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red-headed Amazon River turtle</span> Species of turtle

The red-headed Amazon side-necked turtle, red-headed river turtle or red-headed sideneck is a species of turtle in the family Podocnemididae. It is found in the Amazon basin in Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuela. The red-headed river turtle is considered a small turtle with a size of less than 32 cm, making it easily distinguishable from other species in the area. Identifying factors of this turtle include colors ranging from dark brown to black, barbels under the chin, and a bright red strip that goes from behind its head to the tympanum.

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Richard Carl "Dick" Vogt was an American herpetologist based in Brazil. He was the director of the Centro de Estudos de Quelônios da Amazônia at the National Institute of Amazonian Research (INPA).

References

  1. 1 2 3 Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group (1996). "Podocnemis expansa". The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . IUCN. 1996: e.T17822A97397263. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.1996.RLTS.T17822A7500662.en .
  2. ↑ "Appendices | CITES". cites.org. Retrieved 14 January 2022.
  3. ↑ Podocnemis expansa, The Reptile Database
  4. 1 2 3 4 Rhodin, Anders G.J.; Inverson, John B.; Roger, Bour; Fritz, Uwe; Georges, Arthur; Shaffer, H. Bradley; van Dijk, Peter Paul; et al. (Turtle Taxonomy Working Group) (3 August 2017). Rhodin A. G.J.; Iverson J.B.; van Dijk P.P.; Saumure R.A.; Buhlmann K.A.; Pritchard P.C.H.; Mittermeier R.A. (eds.). "Turtles of the world, 2017 update: Annotated checklist and atlas of taxonomy, synonymy, distribution, and conservation status(8th Ed.)" (PDF). Chelonian Research Monographs. Conservation Biology of Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises: A Compilation Project of the IUCN/SSC Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group (8 ed.). 7: 1–292. doi:10.3854/crm.7.checklist.atlas.v8.2017. ISBN   978-1-5323-5026-9 . Retrieved 4 October 2019.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Rivas, D. (2015). "Podocnemis expansa (Arrau Sideneck Turtle)" (PDF). The Online Guide to the Animals of Trinidad and Tobago. Retrieved 28 September 2017.
  6. 1 2 3 Mogollones, S.C.; D.J. Rodriguez; O. Hernandez & G.R. Barreto (2010). "A Demographic Study of the Arrau Turtle (Podocnemis expansa) in the Middle Orinoco River, Venezuela". Chelonian Conservation and Biology. 9 (1): 79–89. doi:10.2744/CCB-0778.1. S2CID   86083211.
  7. 1 2 Overduin, M. (2 September 2015). "More Than 1,000 Turtles and Nests Protected in Colombia". Turtle Survival Alliance. Archived from the original on 30 August 2018. Retrieved 28 September 2017.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 Vanzolini, P.E. (2003). "On clutch size and hatching success of the South American turtles Podocnemis expansa (Schweigger, 1812) and P. unifilis Troschel, 1848 (Testudines, Podocnemididae)" (PDF). Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências. 75 (4): 415–430. doi: 10.1590/s0001-37652003000400002 . PMID   14605677.
  9. 1 2 Alves, R.R.N. & G.G. Santana (2008). "Use and commercialization of Podocnemis expansa (Schweiger 1812) (Testudines: Podocnemididae) for medicinal purposes in two communities in North of Brazil". Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 4 (3): 3. doi:10.1186/1746-4269-4-3. PMC   2254592 . PMID   18208597.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "Podocnemis expansa". INCT CENBAM, INPA . Retrieved 28 September 2017.
  11. 1 2 3 Rivas, D. "Arrau turtle". Oregon Zoo. Archived from the original on 29 September 2017. Retrieved 28 September 2017.
  12. 1 2 3 Ferrara, C.R.; L. Schneider & R.C. Vogt (2010). "Podocnemis expansa (Giant South American River Turtle). Basking before the nesting season".{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  13. ↑ The Simon and Schuster Encyclopedia of Animals
  14. 1 2 Ferrara, C.R.; R.C. Vogt; R.S. Sousa-Lima; B.M.R. Tardio & V.C.D. Bernardes (2014). "Sound Communication and Social Behavior in an Amazonian River Turtle (Podocnemis expansa)". Herpetologica. 70 (2): 149–156. doi:10.1655/HERPETOLOGICA-D-13-00050R2. S2CID   85899110.
  15. 1 2 Hernandez, O. & R. Espín (2006). "Efectos del reforzamiento sobre la población de Tortuga Arrau (Podocnemis expansa) en el Orinoco medio, Venezuela". Interciencia. 31: 424–430.
  16. 1 2 Peñaloza, C.L.; O. Hernandez & R. Espín (2015). "Head-starting the Giant Sideneck River Turtle (Podocnemis expansa): Turtles and People in the Middle Orinoco, Venezuela" (PDF). Herpetological Conservation and Biology. 10: 472–488.
  17. 1 2 Pantoja-Lima; Aride; de Oliveira; Félix-Silva; Pezzuti & Rebêlo (2014). "Chain of commercialization of Podocnemis spp. turtles (Testudines: Podocnemididae) in the Purus River, Amazon basin, Brazil: current status and perspectives". J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 10 (8): 8. doi:10.1186/1746-4269-10-8. PMC   3933064 . PMID   24467796.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  18. ↑ Sá; Quintanilha; Freneau; Luz; Borja & Silva (2004). "Crescimento ponderal de filhotes de tartaruga gigante da Amazônia (Podocnemis expansa) submetidos a tratamento com rações isocalóricas contendo diferentes níveis de proteína bruta". Revista Brasileira de Zootecnia. 33 (6): 2351–2358. doi: 10.1590/S1516-35982004000900022 .
  19. ↑ Aguiar, J.C.; E.A. Adriano & P.D. Mathews (2017). "Morphology and molecular phylogeny of a new Myxidium species (Cnidaria: Myxosporea) infecting the farmed turtle Podocnemis expansa (Testudines: Podocnemididae) in the Brazilian Amazon". Parasitology International. 66 (1): 825–830. doi:10.1016/j.parint.2016.09.013. PMID   27693559.
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