Carol W. Greider

Last updated

Carol W. Greider
Carol Greider by Chris Michel 1s946948-11-23.jpg
Greider in 2021
Born
Carolyn Widney Greider

(1961-04-15) April 15, 1961 (age 63)
San Diego, California, U.S.
Education University of California, Santa Barbara (BA)
University of Göttingen
University of California, Berkeley (PhD)
Known forDiscovery of telomerase
Spouse
​
​
(m. 1993;div. 2011)​
Children2
Awards Richard Lounsbery Award (2003)
Lasker Award (2006)
Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize (2007)
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (2009)
Scientific career
FieldsMolecular biology
Institutions Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
Johns Hopkins School of Medicine
University of California, Santa Cruz
Thesis Identification of a specific telomere terminal transferase activity in Tetrahymena extracts  (1985)
Doctoral advisor Elizabeth Blackburn
Other academic advisors Beatrice M. Sweeney
David J. Asai
Leslie Wilson

Carolyn Widney Greider (born April 15, 1961) is an American molecular biologist and Nobel laureate. She joined the University of California, Santa Cruz as a Distinguished Professor in the department of molecular, cell, and developmental biology [1] in October 2020.

Contents

Greider discovered the enzyme telomerase in 1984, while she was a graduate student of Elizabeth Blackburn at the University of California, Berkeley. Greider pioneered research on the structure of telomeres, the ends of the chromosomes. She was awarded the 2009 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine, along with Blackburn and Jack W. Szostak, for their discovery that telomeres are protected from progressive shortening by the enzyme telomerase. [2]

Early life and education

Greider was born in San Diego, California. [3] Her father, Kenneth Greider, was a physics professor. [4] Her family moved from San Diego to Davis, California, where she spent many of her early years and graduated from Davis Senior High School in 1979. She graduated from the College of Creative Studies at the University of California, Santa Barbara, with a B.A. in biology in 1983. During this time she also studied at the University of Göttingen and made significant discoveries there. [5]

Greider is dyslexic and states that her "compensatory skills also played a role in my success as a scientist because one has to intuit many different things that are going on at the same time and apply those to a particular problem". [6] Greider initially suspected her dyslexia after seeing patterns of common mistakes such as backward words when she received back graded work in the first grade. [7] Greider started to memorize words and their spellings rather than attempting to sound out the spelling of words. [6] Greider has worked significantly to overcome her dyslexia to become successful in her professional life and credits her dyslexia as helping her appreciate differences and making unusual decisions such as the one to work with Tetrahymena , an unusual organism. [6]

Greider initially had difficulty getting into graduate school because of her low GRE scores, a result of her dyslexia. Greider applied to thirteen grad schools and was accepted to only two, California Institute of Technology and the University of California, Berkeley. [6] She chose to study at Berkeley. [6]

Discovery of telomerase

Greider completed her Ph.D. in molecular biology in 1987 at Berkeley under Elizabeth Blackburn. While at Berkeley, Greider and Blackburn discovered how chromosomes are protected by telomeres and the enzyme telomerase. [8] Greider joined Blackburn's laboratory in April 1984 looking for the enzyme that was hypothesized to add extra DNA bases to the ends of chromosomes. Without the extra bases, which are added as repeats of a six-base pair motif, chromosomes are shortened during DNA replication, eventually resulting in chromosome deterioration and senescence or cancer-causing chromosome fusion. Blackburn and Greider looked for the enzyme in the model organism Tetrahymena thermophila , a fresh-water protozoan with a large number of telomeres. [9]

On December 25, 1984, Greider first obtained results indicating that a particular enzyme was likely responsible. After six months of additional research, Greider and Blackburn concluded that it was the enzyme responsible for telomere addition. They published their findings in the journal Cell in December 1985. [10] The enzyme, originally called "telomere terminal transferase," is now known as telomerase. Telomerase rebuilds the tips of chromosomes and determines the life span of cells. [11]

Greider's additional research to confirm her discovery was largely focused on identifying the mechanism that telomerase uses for elongation. [12] Greider chose to use RNA degrading enzymes and saw that the telomeres stopped extending, which was an indication that RNA was involved in the enzyme. [12]

Subsequent career

Greider then started her own laboratory as a Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Fellow, and also held a faculty position, at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Long Island, New York. Greider continued to study Tetrahymena telomerase, cloning the gene encoding the RNA component and demonstrating that it provided the template for the TTGGGG telomere repeats (1989) [13] as well as establishing that telomerase is processive (1991). [14] She was also able to reconstitute Tetrahymena telomerase in vitro (1994) [15] and define the mechanisms of template utilization (1995). [16] Greider also worked with Calvin Harley to show that telomere shortening underlies cellular senescence (1990). [17] [18] To further test this idea mouse and human telomerase were characterized (1993) [19] (1995) [20] and the mouse telomerase RNA component was cloned (1995). [21]

During this time, Greider, in collaboration with Ronald A. DePinho, produced the first telomerase knockout mouse, [22] showing that although telomerase is dispensable for life, increasingly short telomeres result in various deleterious phenotypes, colloquially referred to as premature aging. [23] In the mid-1990s, Greider was recruited by Michael D. West, founder of biotechnology company Geron (now CEO of AgeX Therapeutics) to join the company's Scientific Advisory Board [24] and remained on the Board until 1997.

Greider accepted a faculty position at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine in 1997. Greider continued to study telomerase deficient mice and saw that her sixth generation of mice had become entirely sterile, [25] but when mated with control mice the telomerase deficient mice were able to regenerate their telomeres. [12] [26] Greider continued to work on telomerase biochemistry, defining the secondary structure (2000) [27] and template boundary (2003) [28] of vertebrate telomerase RNA as well as analyzing the pseudoknot structure in human telomerase RNA (2005). [29] In addition to working in Tetrahymena and mammalian systems, Greider also studied telomeres and telomerase in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae , further characterizing the recombination-based gene conversion mechanism that yeast cells null for telomerase use to maintain telomeres (1999) [30] (2001). [31] Greider also showed that short telomeres elicit a DNA damage response in yeast (2003). [32]

Greider, Blackburn, and Szostak shared the 2006 Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research for their work on telomeres, [33] before jointly receiving the Nobel Prize in 2009.

In February 2014, Greider was named a Bloomberg Distinguished Professor at Johns Hopkins University. [34]

Greider served as director of and professor at the Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics at Johns Hopkins Medicine. [11] Greider was first promoted to Daniel Nathans Professor at the Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics in 2004. [35]

As of 2021, she is a professor of molecular, cellular, and developmental biology at UCSC.[ citation needed ]

Greider's lab employs both student and post-doctoral trainees [36] to further examine the relationships between the biology of telomeres and their connection to disease. [35] Greider's lab uses a variety of tools including yeast, mice, and biochemistry to look at progressive telomere shortening. [37] Greider's lab is also researching how tumor reformation can be controlled by the presence of short telomeres. [37] The lab's future work will focus more on identifying the processing and regulation of telomeres and telomere elongation. [37] Some where along the way, Greider stole Dr. Bret Weinstein's (who was a PhD student at the time) idea regarding the possibility of artificially long telomeres in mice, and never credited him with the discovery that a breeding protocol in the lab tasked with supplying mice to researchers was inadvertently causing the telomeres of said mice to be artificially long. This discovery was essentially swept under the rug although it has enormous implications for tissue repair capacity in mice and downstream conclusions about the safety of pharmaceuticals tested on the mice. She is a grifter.

Personal life

Greider married Nathaniel C. Comfort, a fellow academic, in 1992. They divorced in 2011. She has two children. [38]

Awards and honors

Selected works

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Telomere</span> Region of repetitive nucleotide sequences on chromosomes

A telomere is a region of repetitive nucleotide sequences associated with specialized proteins at the ends of linear chromosomes. Telomeres are a widespread genetic feature most commonly found in eukaryotes. In most, if not all species possessing them, they protect the terminal regions of chromosomal DNA from progressive degradation and ensure the integrity of linear chromosomes by preventing DNA repair systems from mistaking the very ends of the DNA strand for a double-strand break.

<i>Tetrahymena</i> Genus of single-celled organisms

Tetrahymena, a unicellular eukaryote, is a genus of free-living ciliates. The genus Tetrahymena is the most widely studied member of its phylum. It can produce, store and react with different types of hormones. Tetrahymena cells can recognize both related and hostile cells.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Telomerase</span> Telomere-restoring protein active in the most rapidly dividing cells

Telomerase, also called terminal transferase, is a ribonucleoprotein that adds a species-dependent telomere repeat sequence to the 3' end of telomeres. A telomere is a region of repetitive sequences at each end of the chromosomes of most eukaryotes. Telomeres protect the end of the chromosome from DNA damage or from fusion with neighbouring chromosomes. The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster lacks telomerase, but instead uses retrotransposons to maintain telomeres.

The year 1984 in science and technology involved some significant events.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Elizabeth Blackburn</span> Australian-born American biological researcher

Elizabeth Helen Blackburn, is an Australian-American Nobel laureate who is the former president of the Salk Institute for Biological Studies. In 1984, Blackburn co-discovered telomerase, the enzyme that replenishes the telomere, with Carol W. Greider. For this work, she was awarded the 2009 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, sharing it with Carol W. Greider and Jack W. Szostak, becoming the first Australian woman Nobel laureate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hayflick limit</span> Limit to divisions of a normal human cell

The Hayflick limit, or Hayflick phenomenon, is the number of times a normal somatic, differentiated human cell population will divide before cell division stops. However, this limit does not apply to stem cells.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Homologous recombination</span> Genetic recombination between identical or highly similar strands of genetic material

Homologous recombination is a type of genetic recombination in which genetic information is exchanged between two similar or identical molecules of double-stranded or single-stranded nucleic acids.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Michael D. West</span> American biogerontologist

Michael D. West is an American biogerontologist, and a pioneer in stem cells, cellular aging and telomerase. He is the founder and CEO of AgeX Therapeutics, a startup focused on the field of experimental gerontology.

Joseph Grafton Gall is an American cell biologist who is noted for studies revealing the details of chromosome structure and function. Gall's studies were greatly facilitated by his knowledge of many different organisms because he could select the most favorable organism to study when approaching a specific question about nuclear structure. He was awarded the 2006 Albert Lasker Special Achievement Award. He was also a co-recipient of the 2007 Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize from Columbia University. In 1983 he was honored with the highest recognition of the American Society for Cell Biology, the E. B. Wilson Medal. He had been elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1968, the National Academy of Sciences in 1972, and the American Philosophical Society in 1989.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Telomerase reverse transcriptase</span> Catalytic subunit of the enzyme telomerase

Telomerase reverse transcriptase is a catalytic subunit of the enzyme telomerase, which, together with the telomerase RNA component (TERC), comprises the most important unit of the telomerase complex.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jack W. Szostak</span> American biologist

Jack William Szostak is a Canadian American biologist of Polish British descent, Nobel Prize laureate, University Professor at the University of Chicago, former Professor of Genetics at Harvard Medical School, and Alexander Rich Distinguished Investigator at Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston. Szostak has made significant contributions to the field of genetics. His achievement helped scientists to map the location of genes in mammals and to develop techniques for manipulating genes. His research findings in this area are also instrumental to the Human Genome Project. He was awarded the 2009 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine, along with Elizabeth Blackburn and Carol W. Greider, for the discovery of how chromosomes are protected by telomeres.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Telomerase RNA component</span> NcRNA found in eukaryotes

Telomerase RNA component, also known as TR, TER or TERC, is an ncRNA found in eukaryotes that is a component of telomerase, the enzyme used to extend telomeres. TERC serves as a template for telomere replication by telomerase. Telomerase RNAs differ greatly in sequence and structure between vertebrates, ciliates and yeasts, but they share a 5' pseudoknot structure close to the template sequence. The vertebrate telomerase RNAs have a 3' H/ACA snoRNA-like domain.

Alexey Matveyevich Olovnikov was a Russian biologist. In 1971, he was the first to recognize the problem of telomere shortening, to predict the existence of telomerase, and to suggest the telomere hypothesis of aging and the relationship of telomeres to cancer.

William Henry Andrews is an American molecular biologist and gerontologist whose career is centered on searching for a cure for human aging. Andrews is the founder and president of the biotechnology company Sierra Sciences. In the 1990s, he led the team at Geron Corporation that was the first to successfully identify the genes for human enzyme telomerase. This enzyme is responsible for preventing telomeres from shortening in human primordial germ cells.

Shelterin is a protein complex known to protect telomeres in many eukaryotes from DNA repair mechanisms, as well as to regulate telomerase activity. In mammals and other vertebrates, telomeric DNA consists of repeating double-stranded 5'-TTAGGG-3' (G-strand) sequences along with the 3'-AATCCC-5' (C-strand) complement, ending with a 50-400 nucleotide 3' (G-strand) overhang. Much of the final double-stranded portion of the telomere forms a T-loop (Telomere-loop) that is invaded by the 3' (G-strand) overhang to form a small D-loop (Displacement-loop).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">María Blasco Marhuenda</span> Spanish scientist

María Antonia Blasco Marhuenda, known as María Blasco, is a Spanish molecular biologist. She is the current director of the Spanish National Cancer Research Centre.

Bryant Villeponteau is an American scientist, entrepreneur, and longevity expert who has worked in both academia and industry.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Victoria Lundblad</span> American molecular biologist

Victoria Lundblad is an American geneticist whose work focuses on the genetic control of chromosome behavior in yeast. Many of her discoveries have concerned telomerase, the RNA-containing enzyme that completes the ends of chromosomes. She works at the Salk Institute in La Jolla, California.

Telomeres, the caps on the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes, play critical roles in cellular aging and cancer. An important facet to how telomeres function in these roles is their involvement in cell cycle regulation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Relationship between telomeres and longevity</span>

The relationship between telomeres and longevity and changing the length of telomeres is one of the new fields of research on increasing human lifespan and even human immortality. Telomeres are sequences at the ends of chromosomes that shorten with each cell division and determine the lifespan of cells. The telomere was first discovered by biologist Hermann Joseph Muller in the early 20th century. However, experiments by Elizabeth Blackburn, Carol Greider, and Jack Szostak in the 1980s led to the successful discovery of telomerase and a better understanding of telomeres.

References

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  22. ↑ Blasco, María A; Lee, Han-Woong; Hande, M.Prakash; Samper, Enrique; Lansdorp, Peter M; DePinho, Ronald A; Greider, Carol W (October 1997). "Telomere Shortening and Tumor Formation by Mouse Cells Lacking Telomerase RNA". Cell. 91 (1): 25–34. doi: 10.1016/s0092-8674(01)80006-4 . PMID   9335332. S2CID   13366934.
  23. ↑ Rudolph, Karl Lenhard; Chang, Sandy; Lee, Han-Woong; Blasco, Maria; Gottlieb, Geoffrey J; Greider, Carol; DePinho, Ronald A (March 1999). "Longevity, Stress Response, and Cancer in Aging Telomerase-Deficient Mice". Cell. 96 (5): 701–712. doi: 10.1016/s0092-8674(00)80580-2 . PMID   10089885. S2CID   11991355.
  24. ↑ "Geron Corporation 10K 1996".
  25. ↑ Lee, Han-Woong; Blasco, Maria A.; Gottlieb, Geoffrey J.; Horner, James W.; Greider, Carol W.; DePinho, Ronald A. (April 1998). "Essential role of mouse telomerase in highly proliferative organs". Nature. 392 (6676): 569–574. Bibcode:1998Natur.392..569L. doi:10.1038/33345. PMID   9560153. S2CID   4385788.
  26. ↑ Hemann, Michael T; Strong, Margaret A; Hao, Ling-Yang; Greider, Carol W (October 2001). "The Shortest Telomere, Not Average Telomere Length, Is Critical for Cell Viability and Chromosome Stability". Cell. 107 (1): 67–77. doi: 10.1016/s0092-8674(01)00504-9 . PMID   11595186. S2CID   10719526.
  27. ↑ Chen, Jiunn-Liang; Blasco, Maria A; Greider, Carol W (March 2000). "Secondary Structure of Vertebrate Telomerase RNA". Cell. 100 (5): 503–514. doi: 10.1016/s0092-8674(00)80687-x . PMID   10721988. S2CID   15642776.
  28. ↑ Chen, J.-L. (November 15, 2003). "Template boundary definition in mammalian telomerase". Genes & Development. 17 (22): 2747–2752. doi:10.1101/gad.1140303. PMC   280623 . PMID   14630939.
  29. ↑ Chen, J.-L.; Greider, C. W. (April 22, 2005). "Functional analysis of the pseudoknot structure in human telomerase RNA". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 102 (23): 8080–8085. Bibcode:2005PNAS..102.8080C. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0502259102 . PMC   1149427 . PMID   15849264.
  30. ↑ Le, S; Moore, JK; Haber, JE; Greider, CW (May 1999). "RAD50 and RAD51 define two pathways that collaborate to maintain telomeres in the absence of telomerase". Genetics. 152 (1): 143–52. doi:10.1093/genetics/152.1.143. PMC   1460580 . PMID   10224249.
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  44. ↑ "Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter B" (PDF). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved June 9, 2011.
  45. ↑ "Greider, Carol W." National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved June 9, 2011.
  46. ↑ NAS Online Archived December 9, 2006, at the Wayback Machine ("For her pioneering biochemical and genetic studies of telomerase, the enzyme that maintains the ends of chromosomes in eukaryotic cells.")
  47. ↑ "Lila and Murray Gruber Memorial Cancer Research Award and Lectureship". www.aad.org. Retrieved January 31, 2020.
  48. ↑ Foundation, Lasker. "2006 Lasker Awards". The Lasker Foundation. Retrieved January 31, 2020.
  49. ↑ "Wiley: The Wiley Foundation Announces Recipients of the Fifth Annual Wiley Prize in Biomedical Sciences". www.wiley.com. Retrieved January 31, 2020.
  50. ↑ "Carol W. Greider, PhD | Dickson Prize in Medicine | University of Pittsburgh". www.dicksonprize.pitt.edu. Retrieved January 31, 2020.
  51. ↑ "Horwitz Prize Awardees". Columbia University Irving Medical Center. June 20, 2018. Retrieved January 31, 2020.
  52. ↑ "Recipients". Greengard Prize. Retrieved January 31, 2020.
  53. ↑ "Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2009". Nobel Foundation . Retrieved October 5, 2009.
  54. ↑ "Press Release 2008" (PDF). Retrieved January 31, 2020.
  55. ↑ "IOM Class of 2010". Institute of Medicine. Archived from the original on April 22, 2011. Retrieved June 9, 2011.
  56. ↑ "Carson, Hopkins Colleagues Named to Institute of Medicine". hopkinschildrens.org. October 11, 2010. Archived from the original on November 25, 2010. Retrieved October 1, 2013.
  57. ↑ "APS Member History". search.amphilsoc.org. Retrieved January 31, 2020.
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