The .xxx domain is intended for pornographic material.
Pornography has been defined as any material in varying forms, including texts, video, photos or audio that is consumed for sexual satisfaction and arousal of an individual or partnership. The effects of pornography on individuals or their intimate relationships have been a subject of research.[1]
Scholars note that much of the research on the effects of pornography often confuse correlation and causation.[1]
A few key theories
Sexuality theories
Sexual Strategies Theory
Sexual Strategies Theory can be strongly linked to pornography consumption and its effects. This theory is originally proposed by psychologists David Michael Buss and David P. Schmitt in 1993.[2] The theory details how men and women are biologically wired differently when it comes to seeking avenues of sexual and romantic endeavors. It argues that these biological evolutions and differences still exist today when choosing sexual material or even a romantic partner. Some other researchers also backed up Buss and Schmitt's theory, emphasizing how men are more attracted to the physicality of a person, while women are attracted to more of the status of a person.[3]
In the context of pornography consumption, the sexual strategies theory comes in to play especially for men. Males would consume more pornography to have a visual physicality of certain pornographic actors, which would play into even more frequent consumption of the material.[2]
Pornography research is greatly influenced by Script Theory. Originally proposed by researcher Silvan Tomkins, Script Theory proposes that behavior is a series of "scripts", or programs in order to achieve a goal.[4][5] These scripts provide meaning for specific patterns, actions or behaviors that an individual does in certain contexts of achieving that goal. In 1986, Simon and Gagnon applied script theory to sexuality research, asserting that sexual scripts fall under a category of cultural scripts to regulate sexual behaviors.[5] Modern research has applied this concept to work with pornography, and specifically how pornography may influence sexual scripts and behaviors. Some studies argue that pornography functions as a sexual script, cluing people in to the certain patterns, behaviors and actions mentioned above which would influence their own sexual behaviors in later encounters.[4][6]
Pornography may alter individuals' expectations regarding sexual activity, which then impacts their ability to form and maintain romantic, or sexual, relationships.[4][6] Pornography functions as a cultural script, a media through which individuals may pick up on or learn sexual cues. One concern is that, by relying on pornography for education on sexual cues or sexual scripts, individuals may have an altered sense of what sexuality and sexual intercourse truly entail.They might not perform appropriately in their real life sexual relationships, potentially causing misunderstandings or, in a more extreme cases, abusive behavior.[7][8][6]
Typical gender roles can also confuse and alter expectations for the traditional heterosexual sexual script.[9] The way sexuality is taught, learned and expressed is different due to societal gender expectations.[9]
Pornography can often display women acting with traditional male sexual scripts or exaggerated female scripts. Pornography thus creates a double standard for the male partners of expecting a female partner to act in an unrealistic, exaggerated way that is many scenes that are considered fantasy.[10]
Furthermore, many young adult men can get confused or perplexed when having a sexual experience with a woman using a traditional female sexual script, as opposed to a more embraced (even sometimes aggressive) sexuality, often outside the confines of an exclusive relationship, that is shown frequently in pornography that is constructed to cater to men.[10]
Scripting framework
The most applicable theoretical framework of sexual scripting comes from Paul J. Wright's Sexual Script 3 AM (Script acquisition, activation, application).[11] This framework enhances the understanding of Sexual Scripting from a relationship perspective. due to the availability of pornographic categories that are more violent and aggressive, people that are exposed to that sort of material would have a different understanding of their sexual scripts and would more likely enact violent and abusive tendencies against women in their relationships.[12]
Affection Exchange Theory classifies human affection and interaction as innate acts which assist individuals in mating, reproduction, and survival, as well as in developing and maintaining healthy relationships.[13] This theory can be extended to sexuality to consider sexual acts as significant contributions to affection behavior. Humans express affection through a myriad of actions, including verbal affirmations and physical touch. This theory takes a more modern approach to traditional evolutionary theories, and extrapolates that affection communication plays a role in sexual selection and reproduction.[13] Furthermore, Affection Exchange Theory posits that, although often found together, affectionate expression is separate from affectionate emotion. An individual may express unauthentic affection (expression without emotion), or may feel affection that they suppress (emotion without expression). Beyond relationship findings, more affectionate people also report better overall health, including more self-esteem, less anxiety, less fear of intimacy, and greater satisfaction with their lives and their relationships.[13] Research on Affection Exchange Theory has been connected to pornography and couples research as a potential mitigator to relationship and sexual satisfaction, as well as sexual desire.[4]
Pornography addiction is a purported behavioral addiction characterized by compulsive, repeated use of pornographic material which causes serious consequences to one's physical, mental, social, and/or financial well-being.[14][15][16] There is no diagnosis of pornography addiction in the current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5),[14] though the DSM-5 considered the diagnosis of hypersexuality-related behavioral disorders (to which porn addiction was a subset), but rejected it because "there is insufficient peer-reviewed evidence to establish the diagnostic criteria and course descriptions needed to identify these behaviors as mental disorders."[14] Instead, some psychologists suggest that any maladaptive sexual symptoms represent a manifestation of an underlying disorder, such as depression or anxiety which is simply manifesting itself sexually, or, alternatively, there is no underlying disorder and the behavior simply is not maladaptive. It is argued that psychologists do not recognize the concept of addiction, only chemical dependence, and some believe the concept and diagnosis to be stigmatizing and unhelpful.[17][18]
Studies and evidence of effects
Two 2016 neurology reviews found evidence of addiction related brain changes in internet pornography users. Psychological effects of these brain changes are described as desensitization to reward (which can be related to cognition), a dysfunctional anxiety response, and impulsiveness.[19][20] Another 2016 review suggests that internet behaviors, including the use of pornography, be considered potentially addictive, and that problematic use of online pornography be considered an "internet-use disorder".[21]
Introductory psychology textbook authors Coon, Mitterer and Martini, passingly mentioning NoFap (former pornography users who have since chosen to abstain from the material) speak of pornography as a "supernormal stimulus" but use the model of compulsion rather than addiction.[22]
Psychological effects
A number of studies have found neurological markers of addiction in Internet pornography users,[23][21][20] which is consistent with a large body of research finding similar markers in other kinds of problematic users.[21] Yet other studies have found that critical biomarkers of addiction are missing.[24]
According to the American Society of Addiction Medicine, some psychological and behavioral changes in response to developing addiction include addictive cravings, impulsiveness, weakened executive function, desensitization, and dysphoria.[25] BOLD fMRI results have shown that individuals diagnosed with compulsive sexual behavior (CSB) show enhanced cue reactivity in brain regions associated traditionally with drug-cue reactivity.[19][26]
These regions include the amygdala and the ventral striatum.[19][26] Men without CSB who had a long history of viewing pornography exhibited a less intense response to pornographic images in the left ventral putamen, possibly suggestive of desensitization.[19] ASAMs position is inconsistent, however, with the American Association of Sex Educators, Counselors, and Therapists, who cite lack of strong evidence for such classification, describing ASAM as not informed by "accurate human sexuality knowledge".[27]
Cognitive effects
Pornographic content also has substantial impact to a person's executive function and would cause a greater case of desensitization as mentioned above. A Neuroscience perspective paper mentioned a German study done in 2007 resulted in the finding that the persistence of sexual urges can cause physical changes to a person's brain.[28][29] A more extreme case of Pornography use could even result in impaired decision making. In some other cases, extreme levels of consumption could result in sexual bias, in which an individual would respond more greatly if there is an active presence of sexual stimuli [30]
The International Classification of Diseases, 11th edition (ICD-11) added pornography to Compulsive Sexual Behavior Disorder (CSBD).[31] CSBD is not an addiction and should not be conflated with sex addiction.[32][33][34][35][36][37][38]
DSM-5-TR, published in March 2022, does not recognize a diagnosis of porn addiction.[32][39][40][41]
Mental blocks in individual "physicality" and its studies
Although there are no significant outward effects on the physicality of an individual, Pornographic consumption can still have an effect on how individuals view their bodies and how they would change certain aspects of their physicality to better mirror those in the pornographic material. This in turn will lead to issues of self-esteem, body dysmorphia and overall body image issues.[42]
Men and masculine "attractiveness"
A study of 359 college men found that high viewership of pornography relates to increased masculinity and body dissatisfaction.[43] Sexual performance changes a man's view of his masculinity, and often his self-esteem. Pornography is not the only factor affecting men's self-esteem and body image. Popular media often depicts strong but lean men as the ideal attractive body type and goal. Pornography is significant to men's self-image. It connects a lean body type to sexual validation.[43] Men would also make comparisons with the pornographic models due to a level of dissatisfaction. These can include face shape, hair and muscle mass. All of these elements could significantly contribute to men's self esteem levels.[44] As of 2021, few studies have evaluated how exposure to pornography relates to men's body image. Researchers recommend that others conduct more studies on pornography's effect on men's psychology.
Heterosexual pornography reinforces a concept called the centerfold syndrome. In 1995, psychologist Gary R. Brooks wrote about men and the centerfold syndrome. This concept asserted that gender roles in media contribute to high sexual dysfunction in men.[45] Sexual dysfunction has many parts. One part is the viewing of women as body parts, trophies, or sexual conquests. These concepts are often known as voyeurism, objectification, and trophyism. Another part is tying female approval of manliness to a man's self-image. The third part of sexual dysfunction includes avoiding intimacy, attachment, and emotions. Heterosexual pornography reinforces this syndrome through observational learning. In other words, the story within pornography becomes the expected reality. Deviations from that story create low self-esteem.
Women and self-consciousness
Studies rarely observe women's viewership of pornography. One modern study with female subjects provided mixed results. Pornography does not affect women's perception of body image and relationship satisfaction if it is free of behavior.[46] Violence is one example. All other viewership appears to minimally affect body image and relationship satisfaction.
A 2021 study has shown a mediating role of pornography use among women and how it affects the consciousness of body image and attachment insecurities.[47] Girls who have not experienced a sensitive response to their needs and/or were emotionally deprived under the parent/caretaker childhood environment had a greater chance of developing insecurities about their body image. The use of pornography would more likely amplify attachment fears and anxiety. Such anxiety is strongly connected to females seeking validation and approval of their physicality in intimate settings from their partners and relationships.
The findings did correlate with past research articles which found that "anxious but not avoidant attachment affects body image, the drive for thinness, body dissatisfaction[48] and body appreciation."[49] Furthermore, pornography use could also amplify women's body image self-consciousness in an intimate setting. The acts performed in pornographic movies created a feeling of pressure among women, not only creating a higher negative body image but also the feeling of being criticized by their partners if their body was not resembling the body shape of models in pornographic content.[47]
However, mediating role between pornography, and anxiety attachment, and body image self-consciousness was found only in women in a relationship at the time of the study, which correlated with attachment theory.
Delay discounting and dehumanization
A 2019 survey of 1083 U.S. adults by Mecham, Lewis-Western and Wood evaluated the relationship between pornography and unethical behavior in the workplace.[50] Unethical behavior, according to the researchers, consists of delay discounting and dehumanization. Delay discounting involves the idea of waiting with steps that usually involve more process and work versus acting now, taking a faster route and getting instant reward. It is to expect lower rewards in the future versus acting in the moment. The expectation of a high, instant reward for acting now can lead to reduced self-control and increased impulsivity [51]
Dehumanization is a form of moral disengagement in which people view others as less than human. According to the study, increased pornography use causes increased dehumanization and unethical behavior.[50] Regressing women to be looked at as sexual objects is a prime example of Dehumanization due to Pornography. Dehumanization also relates to Sexual Objectification. In relation to pornography, Men who are consuming porn that depict sexual objectification and regression towards women, would more likely engage in a few forms of dehumanization of women in real life. These can range from their change of attitude towards women, being more aggressive or the underestimation of women, where one thinks that women are of a lesser status.[52]
Public health
Pathologizing any form of sexual behavior, including pornography use, has the potential to restrict sexual freedom and to stigmatize. Researcher Emily F. Rothman, author of Pornography and Public Health stated that the professional communities are not advocating for the "push" in labelling pornography as a "public health crisis".[53]
She and another researcher have called these moves a "political stunt".[54] The ideas supporting the "crisis" have been described as pseudoscientific.[55]
Sexual effects and its studies
The sexual effects of pornography on intimacy and relationships observe some of the most gendered differences. Men and women differ vastly in how they are impacted by pornography both within and beyond a romantic or sexual relationship.
The consumption of pornography has been shown to have an impact on sexual risk-taking, including less frequent usage of condoms and birth control, as well as more casual sexual encounters.[7][56] It can negatively impact sexual functioning, especially in men.[57] However, pornography can function as an educational resource for individuals to improve their sexual knowledge,[7][58] and women who consume pornography more regularly experience increased desire for sexual activity, indicating that pornography might be useful as a form of foreplay.[7][59]
Sexual desire is one of the factors that have an impact on the gender differences the most. In general, men experience the most acute effects from pornography in terms of sexual desire. Straight men report less sexual desire, both for their partner and in general, directly after consuming pornography.[59] Men also typically utilize pornography for masturbation and solo-sexual activities, rather than partnered or joint purposes.[60][61][62] Strong associations exist between increased pornography consumption, frequency of pornography consumption, and problematic decreases in sexual desire for men. Men who use pornography more frequently report less desire for their partner, and for sex in general.[61]
While most modern research on pornography focuses on men, the findings in women hold interesting information on pornography's gendered impact on sexual desire. Women have found a positive correlation between pornography consumption and sexual desire, indicating that women who view pornography feel more positively about expressing their sexual impulses.[62][63] In addition to increased sexual desire, women may express more sexual attraction specifically for their partner on days when they watch pornography.[59]
Even though men and women have significant differences in terms of their sexual mood, behavior and overall porn consumption, Their brain activity would prove to be similar to each other. Both gender's brain activity is nearly identical to each other when consuming pornography, suggesting that men and women experience similar arousal effects due to pornographic exposure.[64] Further, both genders report significant support for female-centric pornography, though men express similar levels of arousal to both "focuses" of pornography. Women meanwhile, report more general negativity towards traditional, male-centric pornography and express stronger support for female-centric pornography. Women also report higher levels of self-reported arousal when exposed to female-centric content.[6]
In general, pornography consumption in couples has been associated with greater sexual desire.[58] Although research in the way of same-sex relationships is limited, available findings indicate that pornography use is connected to an increased level of sexual desire. Men partnered with women report less sexual desire in general with increased pornography consumption, whereas women in both mixed-sex or same-sex relationships report greater sexual desire overall. Also, individuals were less likely to consume pornography the day after engaging in sexual intercourse.[59]
Sexual function
Sexual function is a rising concern with pornography consumption. Primarily thought to affect men, there is a notable relationship between pornography consumption and sexual function problems. Commonly reported problems include erectile dysfunction, delayed ejaculation, anorgasmia, and a lack of sexual desire.[63] Recently, the rates of sexual dysfunction have been increasing in younger age demographics.[63] Medical professionals suspect pornography may be one factor contributing to this increase, however there is little causal evidence of such an effect.[63][65] Another issue is delayed ejaculation, an issue where men may experience a large disconnected sensation between their orgasm and ejaculation. Some may difficulty achieving ejaculation altogether. Overarching research shows little evidence of pornography having any effect on delayed ejaculation.[63] Despite the lack of evidence for more physical issues with sexual function, pornography is related to problematic decreases of sexual desire and sexual satisfaction, This correlation requires further research in the field in order for its effects to have greater impact, however.[61][63][66]
In women, there is little evidence for pornography-induced sexual dysfunction. The most commonly observed effect is increased anxiety or distress, which may then lead to issues of overall sexual function. The most commonly reported issue for women is arousal dysfunction, indicating a difficulty in achieving or maintaining arousal during sexual activity.[63] This could potentially lead to physical issues, such as painful penetration or vaginismus, making sexual intercourse painful and unpleasant.[63] Women also tend to report more negative effects towards pornography, including strong feelings of shame or guilt.[63]
Pornography may influence both genders to make riskier decisions with their sexual health. A study analyzing the use of barrier contraceptives by German adults found that when pornography is used as an educational tool on sexuality and sexual culture, there is an opposite effect that happens. People who consume more pornographic content would use condoms less frequently.[67] Overall, the most frequently reported issues with sexual function that relate to pornography are decreases in sexual desire for men, and decreases in sexual satisfaction overall.[61][63]
Sexual satisfaction
Research on pornography's effect on sexual satisfaction is highly varied. Numerous studies looking at both individuals and couples have found different, at times contradictory, results. One study found a negative relationship between pornography consumption and sexual satisfaction across two samples of men.[61] In addition, the frequency of pornography consumption, rather than the type of pornography consumed, is negatively correlated with sexual satisfaction; the type of pornography consumed had no effect on sexual satisfaction.[61] When considering couples and their pornography consumption, couples with a greater lack of agreement over content choice reported being more sexually dissatisfied than couples who watched pornography together, as well as couples who jointly abstained from pornography altogether.[58]
In women, there is a more positive correlation between pornography consumption and sexual satisfaction. Some suggest that males have a different relationship with pornography consumption, with men resorting to pornography due to further sexual satisfaction or even reaching a cyclical effect.[6] An indirect, yet positive, effect on sexual satisfaction has been found when looking at sexual preference.[61]
Individuals who use pornography alongside masturbation as the primary tool of sexual arousal and satisfaction (or needs) may become conditioned to prefer pornography more than other methods of sexual arousal. Furthermore, a 2017 study by Wright et al. has shown that the "frequency of pornography consumption was also directly related to a relative preference for pornographic rather than partnered sexual excitement."[68] The individuals in the given study primarily used pornography for masturbation purposes. The preference of consuming pornography over achieving a level of sexual satisfaction with a partner, especially in the case of extracting sexual information from pornography, would lead to lower overall sexual satisfaction. Individuals who seek pornography as the main source of information about sexuality were associated with lower sexual excitement, and as a result would have a significantly lower level of sexual satisfaction with their partners. Gender did not affect the results of such findings.[68]
However, pornography among some individuals is not only used for sexual satisfaction. A study on affection substitution has shown that "pornography consumption is positively related to affection deprivation, depression, and loneliness and inversely related to experienced affection, relational satisfaction, and closeness."[69] All presented above variants, except affection deprivation, had a significant correlation based on statistical data. Due to such positive relations, individuals who consume pornography not only use it to satisfy their sexual arousal but also to reduce loneliness and create a coping mechanism against social disconnection. Some of the examples of coping mechanisms may include "creating parasocial relationships with the characters depicted in pornography."[69]
Sexual preferences
The use of pornography is extremely varied, especially in the United States. Measured rates such as: general consumption, frequency of consumption, length of time, and type of pornography— would vary by individual. This would further be classified by gender, age, and relationship status, as well as frequency of consumption, which all factor into the overall consumption rates. In general, men consume more pornographic content, and in a more frequent manner, than women.[60][7][70] A vast majority of men report having consumed pornography, with rates ranging from 50% to 90%, usually plateauing in the upper 80% range. Women, however, report significantly less frequency and more varied consumption of pornography, with 30% and 80% of women saying they have viewed pornography in their lifetime.[70] This variation reflects differences in nationality and culture in terms of sex positivity and pornography acceptance, as well as the unreliability of self-reporting. Despite the variation and lower reports of pornography consumption for women, female viewership of pornography is steadily increasing. Women tend to prefer less hardcore porn compared to men, and men report consuming pornography in conjunction with masturbation more frequently than women.[60]
More recent findings dictate that pornography has an impact on sexual preference. The increase of consumption for pornographic content may affect a person's sexual preference significantly. This can lead to actions, wants and needs during sexual encounters that would mirror those in pornography. These may include the acts depicted, behaviors displayed by actors, doing things that have never been done in the relationship, the triggering of other fantasies and many more.[71] Among men, there is a positive relationship between the type of pornography they consume and a desire for more porn-like sexual experience.[61] Frequency of consumption and type of pornography consumed are related to increased desire for more porn-like sex, which is measured by items indicating an expressed preference for "kinkier sex", "hotter sex", and a more porn-like "sexual appearance".[66] The latter includes grooming habits, as well as hair color and body type. The findings do present evidence that pornography consumption has a role in sexual preferences, though causal relationships cannot be confirmed. The findings affect both genders. This effect is mitigated by both the type of pornography consumed, as well as the frequency of pornography consumption.[61][66]
A study done in 2013 by Seigfried-Spellar and Rogers found results which suggested deviant pornography use followed a specific progression, concluding that individuals with a younger "age of onset", meaning younger age of exposure for pornography were more likely to engage in deviant pornography such as bestiality or child pornography compared to those with a later "age of onset".[72]
Aggression and extreme content
A cross-sectional study on prevalence and patterns in pornography use has detected individuals who mentioned an increased need for more extreme content.[73] This has been theorized to be caused by the desensitization factor mentioned above.[74] However, the actual cause comes from aggression as "more extreme pornography material was more frequently reported by males describing themselves as aggressive."[73][75] On the other hand, females who increased their search for extreme pornographic content came from the curiosity aspect itself rather than a need due to desensitization.[73]
The research focused on associations of dark personality traits with online activities. They found that some dark traits are closely related to online sexual use.[76] Specific online activities of the study covered social media, online gaming, online gambling, online shopping and online sex. The results showed that the specific traits of Machiavellianism, spitefulness, sadism, and narcissism were related to different types of internet activities such as online sex, social media use, online gambling, online gaming, and online shopping."[77]
Individuals' correlation to sexual use to such study variables is Machiavellianism (.32), spitefulness (.31), sadism (.34), narcissism (.24), and psychopathy (.26).[77]
However, for those who can’t wait to know the answer to the billion-dollar question, a “too long; didn’t read” (TLDR): as Dr. Neil Malamuth persuasively argued in a 2018 paper in Aggression and Violent Behavior, it matters what kind of pornography is being used and the person who is using it.7 In other words, it depends.
A controlled study describes the relationship between given behaviors or environmental conditions and health effects in a laboratory setting in which conditions other than those under study are effectively held constant across groups of participants receiving various levels of the experimental condition(s).[78] The findings of the experiments were unable to be generalized outside of the field of the experiments. However, explanations of said studies are still required to prove their importance for understanding the subject matter. This is especially true when it comes to health consequences.
The link between pornography and sexual aggression has been the subject of multiple meta-analyses.[79] Meta-analyses conducted in the 1990s by Allen et al. suggested to researchers that there might not be an association of any kind between pornography and rape supportive attitudes in non-experimental studies.[80] However, a meta-analysis by Hald, Malamuth and Yuen (2000) suggests that there is a link between consumption of violent pornography and rape-supportive attitudes in certain populations of men, particularly when moderating variables are taken into consideration.[79]
A meta-analysis conducted in 2015 found that pornography was associated with sexual aggression in a global scale towards both genders. Verbal aggression were done more frequently than physical aggression, albeit with the same impact. The patterns suggest that violent pornography could be the driving force behind these aggressive actions[81]
A literature review by Ferguson and Hartley in 2009 argued that it would be wise to let go of the notion that pornography contributes to increased sexual assault behavior.[82] The authors stated that the experts of some studies tended to highlight positive findings while de-emphasizing null findings. They would then conclude that controlled studies, on balance, were not able to support links between pornography and sexual violence.
Ferguson and Hartley updated their review with a 2020 meta-analysis. This meta-analysis concluded that mainstream pornography could not be linked to sexual violence and was associated with reductions in sexual violence at the societal level. Small correlations were found between violent porn viewing and sexual aggression, but evidence was unable to differentiate whether this was a causal or selection effect (i.e. sexual offenders seeking out violent porn).[83]
Researcher Emily F. Rothman stated in 2021 that five separate studies have found that the people who commit sexual violence had consumed less porn than other criminals and that these people could potentially ruin the enjoyment of those who consume violence-based porn scenarios.[84] There is no reason to assume that pornography is a cause of rape.[85] There is not enough backing evidence to link violent pornography as the cause of rape.
Epidemiological studies
An epidemiological study describes the association between given behaviors or environmental conditions, and physical or psychological health by means of observation of real-world phenomena through statistical data. Epidemiological studies would generally be useful in describing real life events outside of the experimental field but would have a weak correlation with cause and effect relationships between specific behaviors and the health consequences.[78]
Danish criminologist Berl Kutchinsky's Studies on Pornography and sex crimes in Denmark (1970), a scientific report ordered by the Presidential Commission on Obscenity and Pornography, found that the legalizing of pornography in Denmark had not resulted in an increase of sex crimes.[86] In 1998 Milton Diamond from the University of Hawaii noted that in Japan, the number of reported cases of child sex abuse dropped markedly after the ban on sexually explicit materials was lifted in 1969; however, in Denmark and Sweden, there was a very slight increase in reported rapes after the liberalization of their pornography laws during the same time period, which scientists attribute to a higher awareness of what amounts to sex abuse.[87]
Some researchers argue that there is a correlation between pornography and a decrease of sex crimes.[88][89][90]The effects of Pornography: An International Perspective was an epidemiological study which found that the massive growth of the pornography industry in the United States between 1975 and 1995 was accompanied by a substantial decrease in the number of sexual assaults per capita – and reported similar results for Japan.[87]
In 1986, a review of epidemiological studies by Neil Malamuth found that the quantity of pornographic material viewed by men was positively correlated with degree to which they endorsed sexual assault.[91] Malamuth's work describes Check (1984), who found among a diverse sample of Canadian men that more exposure to pornography led to higher acceptance of rape myths, violence against women, and general sexual callousness. In another study, Briere, Corne, Runtz and Neil M. Malamuth, (1984) reported similar correlations in a sample involving college males. On the other hand, the failure to find a statistically significant correlation in another previous study led Malamuth to examine other interesting correlations, which took into account the information about sexuality the samples obtained in their childhood, and pornography emerged as the second most important source of information.[91] Malamuth's work has been criticized by other authors, however, such as Ferguson and Hartley (2009) who argue Malamuth has exaggerated positive findings and has not always properly discussed null findings.[82] In a Quartz publication, Malamuth argued that porn is like alcohol: "whether it's bad for you depends on who you are" (stating that it increases violence in a few people, not in most people; it makes most people more relaxed).[92]
The White Ribbon, symbolizing a movement against violence done to women
A 2019 study from the Archives of Sexual behavior on Teen Dating Violence (TDV) found that both males and females are perpetrators in different regards. Males would more often engage in Sexual TDV, while females would more often engage in Physical and Emotional TDV. The Study mentions the analysis of two separate frameworks. One is the Confluence model of Sexual aggression, in which it details porn being the one that influences boys to be sexually aggressive. It works significantly towards the males that have fragile masculinity and the ones that are more sexually promiscuous.[93] The other framework is the script acquisition, activation, application model (3AM) of sexual media socialization. This framework suggests that behavior towards sexual encounters is acquired through "scripts" that people get from viewing pornographic content. These actions, often negative, will then be mirrored. This will result in more sexual and teen dating violence.[94][95]
Effects on relationships
The consumption of pornography has various impacts in different areas of a relationship. Pornography can influence an individual's relationship through a number of channels, including overall relationship satisfaction, communication within a relationship, and setting boundaries within that said relationship.
Pornography's impact on relationship satisfaction comes under scrutiny, as findings range from negative correlations, to positive effects. Pornography consumption is correlated with less relationship satisfaction, sexual satisfaction, and less sexual desire for their partner in men.[61][59][66] Researchers have concluded this could be because the ever-changing value of pornography and its regularity makes it difficult for a female partner to compete. Some research reports positive findings for women who consume pornography more regularly, including increased relationship satisfaction and decreased distress.[7][59]
Relationship satisfaction
The research on the correlation between pornography use and relationship satisfaction is varied. While some believe pornography consumption leads people to become less satisfied in their relationships, others believe it can have the opposite effect. Pornography consumption tends to result in lower levels of satisfaction in long-term, heterosexual relationships. Most of the current research is correlational, indicating a connected but non-causal relationship; however, one major trend that gets affected is the rate of divorce. Couples who increase their consumption of pornography are nearly twice as likely to divorce than couples who do not consume pornographic content, with the rate rising from 5% to 11%.[96] Also, married adults who watch porn are twice as likely to be divorced after 6 years than married adults who do not watch porn.[97] One thing that lessens the probability is the frequency of pornography consumption. More frequent pornography consumption is negatively associated with relationship satisfaction. Individuals who report more frequent use of pornography within a relationship also report low levels of satisfaction in their relationships.[61]
However, many reject the idea that pornography is inherently harmful to relationship satisfaction. Joint pornography consumption within a relationship has been connected to increased levels of relationship satisfaction for both partners. Couples who consumed pornography together expressed more satisfaction with their relationships than couples in which only one individual used pornography.[58] This suggests that there is more at play than simply the consumption of pornography, such as the role of honesty and partner perception. Individuals whose partners are honest about their own pornography consumption tend to feel more satisfied in their relationships, to a point. There is evidence for an "honesty threshold", indicating that the relationship between honesty and pornography is not linear, and partners do not want to hear every detail about the other's pornography habits.[98] This indicates that, although honesty and disclosure is important for pornography consumption, there seems to be a threshold of helpful honesty that, once surpassed, may cause more harm. In addition, when women consume pornography, they report lower levels of distress than their counterparts.[58] While women often consume pornography less often than men, men are fairly accurate at perceiving their partner's pornography consumption. Women, on the other hand, are less accurate at perceiving their male partner's pornography use.[7]
Some research suggests that there is no connection between relationship satisfaction and pornography use. A study of two independent male samples found no relationship between pornography and relationship satisfaction in their first sample. when the second sample was introduced, they found a negative correlation between Pornography and Satisfaction.[61] Conversely, other studies found no relationship whatsoever between joint pornography use and satisfaction. When analyzing couples and their pornography consumption over the course of one month, researchers found no correlation between relationship satisfaction and pornography use.[59]
Wright and Herbenick (2022) suggest that White men (as research subjects) are almost entirely responsible for the statistical depreciation of relationship satisfaction due to pornography use.[99] Women and Men of other races do not have this problem.[99]
Communication
Communication is a vital component of any healthy relationship, and many researchers question how pornography may impact the ability of a couple to communicate openly. Honesty has been shown to be a mitigator in relationship effects regarding pornography consumption. Couples who are honest about their pornography consumption report greater satisfaction than couples dealing with their concealed pornography use.[98] Pornography consumption among couples leads to improved communication about sexual desires, and increased openness in communication.[58] Conversely, active concealment of pornography habits can lead to less openness in communication and trust within the relationship.[58][98]
Another important aspect is the communication of affection within relationships. Affection Exchange Theory establishes the inherent role of affection within romantic relationships. Even in the role of survival, reproduction, and sexual selection.[13] Trait attachment is positively associated with relationship satisfaction. Individuals who score higher in trait attachment report feeling and expressing greater sexual desire for their partners, compared to individuals who score lower.[4][13] Some evidence indicates that the connection between Affection Exchange Theory and sexual desire is, in fact, stronger than the connection to relationship satisfaction, suggesting that sexual desire may have a crucial moderating role between the two.[13] While this study found no correlation between pornography consumption and trait affection, researchers noted that increased feelings of guilt were related to lower levels of sexual desire for one's partner. This is somewhat indicative of partner-imposed or communicated guilt, or possibly reflecting an effect of the sexual scripts of pornography creating unrealistic expectations that lead to overall relationship and sexual dissatisfaction.[4]
In 2013, former pornographic actress Sunny Leone quit the industry and became a mainstream icon in the Hindi film industry, after her exit, films were made that exploited sexuality, sensuality and her image.[103]
Pornhub logo
One of the more famous recent cases is the exit of Mia Khalifa. Similar to Leone, Khalifa is a former pornographic actress who was signed with the popular porn site, Pornhub. Khalifa made her exit from the porn industry in January 2015. After her retirement from the industry, she was open about the mistreatment and sexual exploitation of the performers.[104] Khalifa struggled with finances being frozen by the company, earning just a small sum from her whole adult star career.[105] Khalifa also mentioned that she would often be forced to do certain scenes and that her partner convinced her to be involved in the industry.
Foreplay is a set of emotionally and physically intimate acts between one or more people meant to create sexual arousal and desire for sexual activity. Although foreplay is typically understood as physical sexual activity, nonphysical activities, such as mental or verbal acts, may in some contexts be foreplay. This is typically the reason why foreplay tends to be an ambiguous term and means different things to different people. It can consist of various sexual practices such as kissing, sexual touching, removing clothes, oral sex, manual sex, sexual games, and role playing.
Hypersexuality is a term used for a presumed mental disorder which causes unwanted or excessive sexual arousal, causing people to engage in or think about sexual activity to a point of distress or impairment. It is controversial whether it should be included as a clinical diagnosis used by mental healthcare professionals. Nymphomania and satyriasis were terms previously used for the condition in women and men, respectively.
Sexual desire is an emotion and motivational state characterized by an interest in sexual objects or activities, or by a drive to seek out sexual objects or to engage in sexual activities. It is an aspect of sexuality, which varies significantly from one person to another and also fluctuates depending on circumstances.
Pornography addiction is the scientifically controversial application of an addiction model to the use of pornography. Pornography may be part of compulsive sexual behavior with negative consequences to one's physical, mental, social, or financial well-being. While the World Health Organization's ICD-11 (2022) has recognized compulsive sexual behaviour disorder (CSBD) as an "impulsive control disorder", CSBD is not an addiction, and the American Psychiatric Association's DSM-5 (2013) and the DSM-5-TR (2022) do not classify compulsive pornography consumption as a mental disorder or a behavioral addiction.
A sexual fantasy or erotic fantasy is an autoerotic mental image or pattern of thought that stirs a person's sexuality and can create or enhance sexual arousal. A sexual fantasy can be created by the person's imagination or memory, and may be triggered autonomously or by external stimulation such as erotic literature or pornography, a physical object, or sexual attraction to another person. Anything that may give rise to a sexual arousal may also produce a sexual fantasy, and sexual arousal may in turn give rise to fantasies.
Virtual sex is sexual activity where two or more people gather together via some form of communications equipment to arouse each other, often by the means of transmitting sexually explicit messages. Virtual sex describes the phenomenon, no matter the communications equipment used.
Reasons for opposition to pornography include religious objections and feminist concerns, as well as alleged harmful effects, such as pornography addiction. Pornography addiction is not a condition recognized by the DSM-5, or the ICD-11. Anti-pornography movements have allied disparate social activists in opposition to pornography, from social conservatives to harm reduction advocates. The definition of "pornography" varies between countries and movements, and many make distinctions between pornography, which they oppose, and erotica, which they consider acceptable. Sometimes opposition will deem certain forms of pornography more or less harmful, while others draw no such distinctions.
Sexual anorexia is a term coined in 1975 by psychologist Nathan Hare to describe a fear of or deep aversion to sexual activity. It is considered a loss of "appetite" for sexual contact, and may result in a fear of intimacy or an aversion to any type of sexual interaction. The term largely exists in a colloquial sense and is not presently classified as a disorder in the Diagnostic Statistical Manual.
Pornography has been defined as sexual subject material "such as a picture, video, or text" that is intended for sexual arousal. Intended for consumption by adults, pornography depictions have evolved from cave paintings, some forty millennia ago, to virtual reality presentations. A general distinction of adult content is made classifying it as pornography or erotica.
Sexual violence refers to a range of completed or attempted sexual acts in which the affected party does not or is unable to consent. Theories on the causes of sexual violence are numerous and have come out of many different disciplines, such as women's studies, public health, and criminal justice. Proposed causes include military conquest, socioeconomics, anger, power, sadism, traits, ethical standards, laws, and evolutionary pressures. Most of the research on the causes of sexual violence has focused on male offenders.
Sexual desire discrepancy (SDD) is the difference between one's desired frequency of sexual intercourse and the actual frequency of sexual intercourse within a relationship. Among couples seeking sex therapy, problems of sexual desire are the most commonly reported dysfunctions, yet have historically been the most difficult to treat successfully. Sexual satisfaction in a relationship has a direct relationship with overall relationship satisfaction and relationship well-being. Sexual desire and sexual frequency do not stem from the same domains, sexual desire characterizes an underlying aspect of sexual motivation and is associated with romantic feelings while actual sexual activity and intercourse is associated with the development and advancement of a given relationship. Thus together, sexual desire and sexual frequency can successfully predict the stability of a relationship. While higher individual sexual desire discrepancies among married individuals may undermine overall relationship well-being, higher SDD scores for females may be beneficial for romantic relationships, because those females have high levels of passionate love and attachment to their partner. Studies suggest that women with higher levels of desire relative to that of their partners' may experience fewer relationship adjustment problems than women with lower levels of desire relative to their partners'. Empirical evidence has shown that sexual desire is a factor that heavily influences couple satisfaction and relationship continuity which has been one of the main reasons for the interest in this research domain of human sexuality.
Sexual script theory is a theory introduced by sociologists John H. Gagnon and William Simon in their 1973 book Sexual Conduct. Its basic principle states that all social behavior, including sexual behavior, is socially scripted. The idea is that sexual scripts are guidelines for appropriate sexual behavior and sexual encounters. Sexual behavior and encounters become behavior that is learned as well as instinctive. Each partner in consensual encounters acts as if they are an actor in a play or film following a script, rather than acting on impulse alone. Research on sexual scripts and sexual script theory has concluded that sexual scripts are gendered.
Religious views on pornography are based on the broader views of religions on topics such as modesty, dignity, and sexuality. Different religious groups view pornography and sexuality differently.
The media and American adolescent sexuality relates to the effect the media has on the sexuality of American adolescents and the portrayal thereof.
Wendy Maltz is an American sex therapist, psychotherapist, author, educator, and clinical social worker. She is an expert on the sexual repercussions of sexual abuse, understanding women's sexual fantasies, treating pornography-related problems, and promoting healthy sexuality. She has taught at the University of Oregon and, up until her retirement in 2016 from providing counseling services, was co-director with her husband, Larry Maltz, of Maltz Counseling Associates therapy practice in Eugene, Oregon.
NoFap is a website and community forum that serves as a support group for those who wish to give up pornography and masturbation. Its name comes from the slang term fap, referring to male masturbation. While reasons for this abstinence vary by individual, the main motivation cited is attempting to overcome addiction to pornography, or other compulsive sexual behaviours. Other reasons for abstinence include religious and moral reasons, self-improvement, and physical beliefs that are not supported by medicine.
Porn studies is the critical academic study of pornography and its associated industry, typically in the broader rubric of the field of sexuality studies. Porn studies takes as its object of research pornography itself — its visual artefacts, cultural role, controversies, and influence on the public — as well as the manner in which pornography is researched. The development of porn studies as a field of academia has been driven by the publication of the same name.
Marijuana use is commonly thought to enhance sexual pleasure. However, there is limited scientific research on the relationship between marijuana and sex, which is not well understood. The lack of research on the topic is, in part, due to U.S. drug policies centered on prohibition. In addition, the effects are difficult to study because sexual arousal and functioning are in themselves extremely complex and differ among individuals. Moreover, marijuana affects people differently. As a result, it is challenging to study. Men and women report greater sexual pleasure after having consumed marijuana, but there is no direct scientific evidence of the effects on the physiological components of the sexual response cycle when using the drug.
Adolescents turn to pornography for learning amplified by insufficient sex education, arousal, mating motivations, coping mechanisms, alleviating boredom, entertainment, and to explore their sexual and gender identities. However, they may also encounter content that disturbs them. Without adequate support, they learn to navigate disconcerting material, developing the skills to seek out content that affirms their sexuality while avoiding that which causes discomfort. Without alternative narratives, they think it leads to harmful attitudes about women, sex, LGBTQ people, and people of color, and unrealistic expectations. The use of pornography by adolescents is associated with certain sexual attitudes and behaviors, but causal relationships remain unclear. It can be assumed that adolescents are not passive "fools" or "victims". The typical adolescent consumer of pornography is male, in advanced stages of puberty, sensation-seeking, and often grapples with weak or disrupted family relationships.
The orgasm gap or pleasure gap is the disparity in sexual satisfaction—specifically the unequal frequency in achieving orgasm during sexual encounters—between heterosexual men and women. Across every demographic that has been studied, women report the lowest frequency of reaching orgasm during sexual encounters with men. Researchers believe that multiple causes contribute to the orgasm gap. Orgasm gap researcher Laurie Mintz argues that the primary reason for this form of gender inequality is due to "our cultural ignorance of the clitoris" and that it is commonplace to "mislabel women's genitals by the one part that gives men, but not women, reliable orgasms."
1 2 3 4 5 6 Floyd, K. (2015). Affection exchange theory. In C. R. Berger & M. E. Roloff (Eds.), The international encyclopedia of interpersonal communication (pp. 24–31). Malden, MA: Wiley Blackwell. doi:10.1002/9781118540190.wbeic139
1 2 3 American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Fifthed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing. pp.481, 797–798. ISBN978-0-89042-555-8. Thus, groups of repetitive behaviors, which some term behavioral addictions, with such subcategories as "sex addiction," "exercise addiction," or "shopping addiction," are not included because at this time there is insufficient peer-reviewed evidence to establish the diagnostic criteria and course descriptions needed to identify these behaviors as mental disorders.
↑ The British Psychological Society, "Response to the American Psychiatric Association: DSM-5 Development", 2001 Archived 2016-04-17 at the Wayback Machine
↑ Prause, Nicole; Steele, Vaughn R.; Staley, Cameron; Sabatinelli, Dean; Hajcak, Greg (2015). "Modulation of late positive potentials by sexual images in problem users and controls inconsistent with 'porn addiction'". Biological Psychology. 109: 192–199. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2015.06.005. PMID26095441. S2CID1446388.
↑ "AASECT Position on Sex Addiction". April 2018. Retrieved 25 April 2019. AASECT 1) does not find sufficient empirical evidence to support the classification of sex addiction or porn addiction as a mental health disorder, and 2) does not find the sexual addiction training and treatment methods and educational pedagogies to be adequately informed by accurate human sexuality knowledge.
↑ Dhuffar-Pottiwal, Manpreet (2022). Pontes, Halley M. (ed.). Behavioral Addictions: Conceptual, Clinical, Assessment, and Treatment Approaches. Studies in Neuroscience, Psychology and Behavioral Economics. Springer International Publishing. p.163. ISBN978-3-031-04772-5. Retrieved 27 July 2023. Given that we do not yet have definitive information on whether the processes involved in the onset and maintenance of the disorder are equivalent to substance abuse disorders, gambling, and gaming (Kraus et al. 2016), CSBD is not included in the grouping of disorders due to substance and addictive behaviors, but rather in that of impulse control disorders (Kraus et al. 2018).
↑ a verified Counsellor or Therapist (18 January 2021). "Do I have compulsive sexual behaviour?". Counselling Directory. Retrieved 26 March 2022. "Materials related to the ICD-11 make very clear that CSBD is not intended to be interchangeable with 'sex addiction', but rather is a substantially different diagnostic framework." ICD-11. World Health Organization.
↑ American Psychiatric Association (2022). "Conditions for Further Study". Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-5-TR(tm)). G - Reference,Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. American Psychiatric Association Publishing. p.916. ISBN978-0-89042-576-3. Excessive use of the Internet not involving playing of online games (e.g., excessive use of social media, such as Facebook; viewing pornography online) is not considered analogous to Internet gaming disorder, and future research on other excessive uses of the Internet would need to follow similar guidelines as suggested herein. Excessive gambling online may qualify for a separate diagnosis of gambling disorder.
↑ American Psychiatric Association (2022). "Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders". Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-5-TR(tm)). G - Reference,Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. American Psychiatric Association Publishing. p.543. ISBN978-0-89042-576-3. In addition to the substance-related disorders, this chapter also includes gambling disorder, reflecting evidence that gambling behaviors activate reward systems similar to those activated by drugs of abuse and that produce some behavioral symptoms that appear comparable to those produced by the substance use disorders. Other excessive behavioral patterns, such as Internet gaming (see "Conditions for Further Study"), have also been described, but the research on these and other behavioral syndromes is less clear. Thus, groups of repetitive behaviors, sometimes termed behavioral addictions (with subcategories such as "sex addiction," "exercise addiction," and "shopping addiction"), are not included because there is insufficient peer-reviewed evidence to establish the diagnostic criteria and course descriptions needed to identify these behaviors as mental disorders.
↑ Brooks, Gary (1995). The Centerfold Syndrome: How Men Can Overcome Objectification and Achieve Intimacy with Women. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. ISBN0787901040.
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↑ Rothman, Emily F. (2021). Pornography and Public Health. Oxford University Press. p.80. ISBN978-0-19-007549-1. Retrieved 31 May 2022. In other words, five studies found that the sexual violence perpetrators had seen less pornography than other criminals.
↑ Howitt, Dennis (2022). "9. Sexual offenders 1: rapists". Introduction to Forensic and Criminal Psychology (7ed.). Pearson Education Limited. p.166. ISBN978-1-292-29580-0. • Offenders use pornography, but developmental studies tend not to hold pornography responsible for creating their deviance. There is no simple relationship between sexual fantasy and offending.
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