Effects of pornography on young people

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Sexual themes have become prominent in the media, print advertisements, television, video games and other child-friendly mediums. [1] Children are more likely to come across sexually explicit material online intentionally or unintentionally. [2] The large quantity of explicit sexual content online increases the likelihood of young people to experience early sexual debuts or to have sexual experiences at a young age. Young people who frequently engage with explicit sexual content, that exhibits violent and objectifying themes, are more likely to imitate risky and violent sexual practices and to be more accepting of sexual objectification in society. They are also more likely to perceive other people's values and worth solely based on sex appeal. [3]

Contents

Explicit sexual material, particularly pornography, impacts young people's wellbeing, sexual practices, attitudes and social relationships. The exposure to explicit sexual content has been associated with addiction, poor self-esteem, devalued intimacy, objectification, increasing divorce rates and engagement in unprotected sex. [4] The use of pornography has also been associated with discovering one's own sexuality, reducing repressed feelings about sex and sexuality, being more open-minded to how others express their sexualities and being more open-minded to diverse forms of sex. [5] [6]

Either way, knowledge about this topic is tentative, due to a lack of empirical studies. [7] There is no evidence that watching pornography would be harmful to minors. [11] The existing evidence cannot assert any diagnosis, nor other psychiatric claims of being harmful; the evidence is too weak to really support anything. [10] Instead, there are many unfounded claims, suppositions, and speculations. [i] [13] Obstacles to performing such research are insurmountable, thus it could possibly never be known. [14] [15] [16]

Cultural stimulus

According to the American Psychological Association (APA), sexualization occurs: when a person's value is solely defined by his or her sexual appeal or behavior; when a person's physical attractiveness equates to being sexy; when a person is objectified for sexual use; or when sexuality is inappropriately imposed upon a person, such as a child. [17]

The increased ubiquity of sexualized material depicting children and early adolescents is evident in the internet and in other forms of media—images, movies, advertisements, television, music, music lyrics and games. Sexualization is also visible in subtle forms such as marketing materials for clothing, make-up and toys, such as dolls. [2]

Sexualization may occur directly or indirectly through these platforms. Direct sexualization occurs when the way a child dresses up and poses for advertisements draws attention to adult sexual features. Indirect child sexualization occurs when sexualized advertising and popular culture materials target adults. [2]

Exposure to public platforms

The sexual lifestyles and behaviors of young people are reflective of sexual themes and content in electronic, print and social media platforms. They also reflect themes and norms in the physical and social environment. Young people are more likely to imitate the behaviors that they observe. They lack the full capacity to deal with sexual themes and representations mentally, emotionally and physically, which make it difficult for them to discern between what are acceptable according to societal norms and what are not acceptable standards in society. [18] Increasing numbers of young people are being inadvertently exposed to pornographic material whilst online for other reasons. [1]

Children are more likely to be exposed to pornography and other forms of explicit sexual content online as they have easy access to technologies that enable them to connect to the internet, where these resources are widely available.

Pornographic concepts can influence social norms, popular culture, music videos, movies, advertising and fashion, which appeal to young people. Pornography also conveys themes in relation to gender, sexual health, power, bodies, pleasure, consent, sexuality and sex [2] which can influence young people's expectations of sex. [19] It also portrays pleasure, respect and consent in highly sexual and misrepresented ways. [2]

Young people are more likely to encounter sexualized content in video games and social media as these devices appeal to young populations. These devices are also sanctioned or permitted by parents. Some video games may depict violent sexual themes, and time spent on social media may increase the chances of young people to encounter pornographic material or other sexually explicit content. Seemingly innocuous or educational websites can also expose children to unexpected pornographic imagery – The Daily Dot noted that when searching for seemingly innocuous terms on Wikimedia Commons like "wheel", one encounters plenty of pornographic photos unlikely to be relevant to the search – in this particular example, photos from a BDSM torture session. [20]

Exposure

Sexual knowledge, awareness and exploration

Developing a natural curiosity about sexuality fosters healthy sexual development. [21] Pornography serves as a sexual educator, as well as a main source of knowledge on diverse sexualities and sexual practices. [19]

Pornography fails to educate young people about the reproductive aspects of sex, as well as the ethical negotiations surrounding sexuality, such as consent. It also does not teach young people about relationship skills and safe sexual practices. [21]

Pornographic material may be utilized by young people to pleasure themselves, as well as to explore their sexual identities and other sexual practices. [22] Pornography can teach awareness and can foster acceptance towards personal identities, sexualities and bodies. It also enables those who engage with pornographic content to feel more comfortable expressing themselves in relation to sex and sexuality and to be reassured of their sexual identities. [21]

Attitudes, beliefs and expectations about sex and sexuality

Expressing liberal sexual attitudes, such as the willingness to engage in premarital sex, casual sex, oral sex or anal sex, is associated with pornographic use. Engaging with pornography also influences expectations about sex, which can shape what society perceives to be pleasurable or conventional. [23] These expectations may cause anxiety or fear [19] if individuals feel uncomfortable engaging in these sexual acts. [23] Expectations shaped by sexually explicit content may also lead to unrealistic understandings of sex and sexuality in society, [24] as well as misrepresentative views of pleasure and acceptable behaviors in relationships. [23]

Sexual themes seen in public platforms, such as the media, advertisements and other marketing material predisposes people to perceive other's values and attractiveness based solely on sex appeal. [1]

Frequent pornographic use has also been associated with increased gender inequality [18] and stronger beliefs in gender stereotypes [24] associated with sex. Pornography has fostered sexist attitudes and sexual objectification, particularly towards women, [1] resulting to negative impacts on how men regard women in society. [2]

Sexual behaviors and practices

Pornographic exposure has been associated with unsafe sex practices. Unsafe sex practices may include engaging in sexual intercourse without the use of contraceptives, as well as engaging in diverse forms of sexual acts such as anal intercourse, facial ejaculation [19] and intercourse with multiple partners. [23]

Children who have been frequently exposed to explicit sexual content are more likely to engage in the behaviors and practices they observe. [22] They are also more likely to express sexually coercive behaviors such as those depicted in pornographic material. [24]

Using pornography has also been associated with frequent sexting. Young people may view sexting as a means of verbal or emotional communication amongst each other, rather than a means of sharing sexually exposing images of themselves to others. [22] Young people, particularly young girls, may feel pressured to send intimate images of themselves to others. This may elicit feelings of anxiety and discomfort. [24]

Sexual aggression

Pornographic content has become more aggressive, with most scenes depicting acts of physical and verbal aggression. Themes in pornography exhibit: men showing aggression and control; women being dominated; acts of aggression such as gagging, choking and slapping; degradation and humiliation of women; men getting what they want; women as objects of pleasure; unconventional and unrealistic forms of sex; unsafe and unprotected sexual practices; and engaging in sexual acts with multiple partners. [23]

Pornographic content displays sexual violence against women, which perpetuates sexual harassment to both men and women in society. [2] People who regularly engage with violent pornographic material are more likely to be sexually aggressive compared to those who view non-violent pornographic material or those who do not engage with explicit sexual content at all. [19]

Those who frequently engage with explicit sexual material are also more likely to be sexually aroused by violence. [23]

There has also been a growing trend of younger children who sexually assault other young children due to early or frequent exposure to pornographic content. [23]

Mental health and well-being

The messages that sexualized materials convey impact how children develop their identity, attitudes and beliefs, as well as their understandings on how society perceives them. Frequent engagement with pornographic content may also foster self-objectification, which is when one perceives his or her own body as an object of others' desires. [2]

Other psychological implications associated with the frequent use of pornographic material and the exposure to other sexualized material include developing depression and low self-esteem. These mental states may stem from the development of eating disorders, [2] which can arise from a damaging perception of one's body image, associated with exposure to sexualized material. [18] Depression and low self-esteem may also stem from body insecurities when one feels like he or she does not embody what society perceives to be attractive. Again, these societal norms are influenced by sexualized material such as women's and men's clothing magazines. [18]

Exposure to sexually explicit images can also pressure young people to take and send sexually exposing images of themselves to others, which may subject them to having their intimate images distributed without consent. [2] This makes them susceptible to cyberbullying, sexual bullying, harassment, sexual abuse, child abuse and sexual exploitation. [19] These consequences may also distress or upset younger children [19] and can damage young people's mental and emotional health, increasing the likelihood of psychological illnesses as well as physical illnesses to manifest. [18]

Research

How pornographic content and other explicit sexual material impact young people has been the topic of much study and research.

Zillman and Bryant's study aimed to investigate the effect of pornography on adolescents and young adults. They found the exposure to pornography and use of pornographic material to be associated to the following findings: developing a callous perception toward women, considering cases of rape to be less serious, being more accepting of non-marital sex, engaging in diverse sexual practices such as oral or anal sex, becoming more interested in niche pornographic genres, being dissatisfied with one's sexual partner, perceiving sexual infidelity in relationships to be acceptable, devaluing marriage, expressing a decreased desire to have children and showing acceptance of female promiscuity. [25]

Although some literature exists on traditional forms of media (e.g., television, radio, magazines), the empirical research that examines the impact on children of exposure to non-violent sexual material is extremely limited. [26]

— Thornburgh and Lin, National Academy of Sciences (2002), Youth, Pornography, and the Internet

In the United Kingdom, the Association of Teachers and Lecturers feels schoolchildren need to be educated about pornography and warned what is reasonable and what is unacceptable. [27] The UK children's commissioner initiated a meta-study conducted by researchers at Middlesex University which concluded that pornography is linked to unrealistic attitudes about sex, beliefs that women are sex objects, more frequent thoughts about sex, and found that children and young people who view pornography tend to hold less progressive gender role attitudes. [28] Miranda Horvath stated about this: "But it is not possible to establish causation from correlational studies, and to say whether pornography is changing or reinforcing attitudes." [28] [29] In a documentary, Crabbe & Corlett found that young men believed pornographic material to be reflective of sexual practices in reality. [30] These findings adhere to the increasing rates of sexual abuse and the growing trend of children engaging in sexually abusive behaviors towards other children, including their own younger relatives and acquaintances. [31]

The role pornography watching plays in the development of children and youth is basically unknown, due to a lack of empirical studies. [7] This essentially confirms the thesis from Not in Front of the Children : harmful to minors is an often heard claim which completely lacks evidence. [8] [9] There are considerable ethical problems with performing such research. [14] Since those problems are a huge obstacle, it is likely that such research will not be allowed, thus possibly it could never be known. [15] [16] Rory Reid (UCLA) declared "Universities don't want their name on the front page of a newspaper for an unethical study exposing minors to porn." [15] [16]

"[...] more recent rates of teen intercourse and sexual assault have declined considerably [...] Between 1991 and 2009, the teen birth rate dropped by 33 percent." (Tarrant, 2016). [32]

Peter and Valkenburg's (2016) systematic review found the literature suggestive but not conclusive that the adolescent brain may be more sensitive to explicit material. [33] Brown and Wisco's (2019) systematic review reached similar conclusions. [7] Brown and Wisco blamed the lack of empirical studies for being unable to draw definitive conclusions. [7]

The majority of studies in this field are cross-sectional surveys of low quality. [34]

— Marks, Murray, and Estacio (2018)

A 2019 review found that LGBTQ teenagers consume pornography much more often than heterosexual teenagers, but the LGBTQ teenagers are not more negatively impacted by it than heterosexual teenagers. [35]

The PhD thesis (2020) of Marleen J.E. Katayama-Klaassen, at the University of Amsterdam, found a low correlation between views upon sexuality and pornography consumption, and could not show causality. [36]

A 2020 review of reviews about the relationship between sexting and pornography use could not show causality, while the correlations were often convoluted. [37]

A 2021 review which compiled evidence from other empirical sources such as surveys found that representations of women in pornography may lead adolescent boys to view women mainly as sexual objects, with probable repercussions for gender equality. [38] The review, however, nowhere claims that it has shown a causal relationship from mainstream pornography viewing to perspectives furthering gender inequality. [38] Besides, it nowhere states if the correlation found is large or small, numbers for it are not given either. [38]

According to Dennis Howitt (2022), speaking about rapists, "Offenders use pornography, but developmental studies tend not to hold pornography responsible for creating their deviance." [39]

Many young people use pornography as a substitute for sexual education. [40]

No definitive conclusions can be drawn regarding unprotected or paid sex, [41] but teenage pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases have been associated with pornography use (the review states verbatim "causal inference could not be made"). [42]

Figures from The Netherlands in 2023: young men watched porn in the previous six months between 65% (13–15 years) and 96% (22–24 years), and young women between 22% (13–15 years) and 75% (22–24 years old). [43]

The repeated cross-sectional surveys did not find any consistent associations across years between poor mental health and ever having watched pornography or the frequency of watching pornography. [44]

— Svedin et. al. (2023)

Svedin et al. found that a moderate consumption of pornography is associated with good mental health in boys, while both extremes (too much or too few) were worse off. [44] Watching deviant (non-mainstream) pornography was associated with worse mental health in boys, but girls were unaffected. [44]

A 2023 review found that teenagers consider watching pornography a normal part of life, but at the same time they could develop unrealistic views of sexuality due to it. [45]

Jonny Hunt (2024) agrees that there is no evidence for the public claims of porn prohibitionists. [46]

A 2025 systematic review about pornography use by adolescents says that further research is needed. That is, the existing evidence is of limited use for psychiatry (rather inconclusive for a diagnosis). The review described the evidence as heterogenous and limited. [10]

A 2025 public policy research, including about teenagers using pornographic media, says "The evidence to substantiate these assertions remains preliminary" (causality cannot be shown). That is, the existing evidence does not support public policy stances about how teenagers use media. However, the review did not concentrate upon pornography use, and just mentioned it passingly. [47]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Much pornography research has been normative (i.e. moralistic) instead of descriptive. [12]
  1. 1 2 3 4 Bell, C. (2017). An Overview of Research on the Impact that Viewing Pornography has on Children, Pre-Teens and Teenagers. Retrieved from the Bravehearts website: https://web.archive.org/web/20180326042941/https://bravehearts.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Research-Report_Overview-of-research-into-the-effects-of-viewing-pornography-on-children....pdf
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 "Submission to the Parliament of NSW Inquiry into the sexualisation of children and young people (Submission No. 33)" (PDF). Parliament of New South Wales. Australian Psychological Society (2016a). 2016-02-19. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-06-18. Retrieved 2025-08-27.
  3. ↑ Flood, M. (2009). The Harms of Pornography Exposure Among Children and Young People. Child Abuse Review, 18, 384-400. doi : 10.1002/car.1092
  4. ↑ National Coalition to Prevent Child Sexual Abuse and Exploitation. (2011). FACTS FOR PREVENTION: The Impact of Pornography on Children & Youth. Retrieved from the National Coalition to Prevent Child Sexual Abuse and Exploitation website: http://www.preventtogether.org/Resources/Documents/Impact_of_Porn_on_Youth_9.pdf
  5. ↑ McKee, A. (2007). The positive and negative effects of pornography as attributed by consumers. Australian Journal of Communication, 34(1), 87-104.
  6. ↑ McCormack, M., & Wignall, L. (2017). Enjoyment, Exploration and Education: Understanding the Consumption of Pornography among Young Men with Non-Exclusive Sexual Orientations. Sociology, 51(5), 975-991. doi : 10.1177/0038038516629909
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Brown, Jennifer A.; Wisco, Jonathan J. (2019). "The components of the adolescent brain and its unique sensitivity to sexually explicit material". Journal of Adolescence. 72. Elsevier BV: 10–13. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.01.006. ISSN   0140-1971. PMID   30754014. S2CID   73442225.
  8. 1 2 3 Blumner, Robyn E. (13 May 2001). "Moralists wrongfully punish youth for being curious about sex". St. Petersburg Times . St. Petersburg, Florida. Archived from the original on 16 June 2015. Retrieved 12 February 2014.
  9. 1 2 3 Heins, Marjorie (2007). Not in Front of the Children: 'Indecency,' Censorship, and the Innocence of Youth. Rutgers University Press. pp. 80, 86. ISBN   978-0-8135-4388-8.
  10. 1 2 3 Mestre-Bach, Gemma; Potenza, Marc N. (1 July 2025). "Adolescents, Pornography Use, and Problematic Pornography Use: A Rapid Systematic Review of Longitudinal Studies". Journal of the Korean Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 36 (3): 132. doi: 10.5765/jkacap.250015 . ISSN   1225-729X. PMC   12223668 . PMID   40631652.
  11. ↑ [7] [8] [9] [10]
  12. ↑ McKee, Alan; Litsou, Katerina; Byron, Paul; Ingham, Roger (2022). What Do We Know About the Effects of Pornography After Fifty Years of Academic Research?. London: Routledge. p. 94. doi:10.4324/9781003232032. ISBN   978-1-003-23203-2.
  13. ↑ [7] [8] [9]
  14. 1 2 Binik, Yitzchak M.; Mah, Kenneth; Kiesler, Sara (1999). "Ethical issues in conducting sex research on the internet". Journal of Sex Research. 36 (1). Informa UK Limited: 82–90. doi:10.1080/00224499909551971. ISSN   0022-4499.
  15. 1 2 3 Segal, David (4 April 2014). "Does porn harm children?". Dallas News. Retrieved 14 April 2021.
  16. 1 2 3 Segal, David (28 March 2014). "Opinion - Does Porn Hurt Children?". The New York Times. Retrieved 18 April 2021.
  17. ↑ American Psychological Association Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls. (2007). Report of the APA Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Retrieved from: https://www.apa.org/pi/women/programs/girls/report-full.pdf
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 Papadopoulos, L. (2010). Sexualisation of Young People Review https://dera.ioe.ac.uk/id/eprint/10738/1/sexualisation-young-people.pdf
  19. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 McKee, A. (2010). Does pornography harm young people? Australian Journal of Communication, 37(1), 17-36.
  20. ↑ Morris, Kevin (25 June 2013). "How Wikimedia Commons became a massive amateur porn hub". The Daily Dot. Archived from the original on 14 February 2021. Retrieved 20 September 2023.
  21. 1 2 3 Australian Psychological Society (2016b). Australian Psychological Society Submission to the Senate Environment and Communications References Committee Inquiry into the harm being done to Australian children through access to pornography on the internet. Retrieved from the Australian Psychological Society website: https://www.psychology.org.au/getmedia/2f794e03-996e-4230-bbaf-5288e21016bd/Submission-australian-children-accessing-pornography.pdf
  22. 1 2 3 Quadara, A., El-Murr, A. and Latham, J. (2017). The effects of pornography on children and young people: An evidence scan. Retrieved from the Australian Institute of Family Studies website: https://aifs.gov.au/sites/default/files/publication-documents/rr_the_effects_of_pornography_on_children_and_young_people_1.pdf
  23. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Martellozzo, E., Monaghan, A., Adler, J. R., Davidson, J., Leyva, R., & Horvath, M. A. H. (2016). “I wasn’t sure it was normal to watch it…” A quantitative and qualitative examination of the impact of online pornography on values, attitudes, beliefs and behaviours of children and young people. Retrieved from the Middlesex University London website: https://repository.mdx.ac.uk/download/90789abfe6c6e864c5f550b2cad8d57402508d7c8699cb5ab997cb361c4441e9/2334551/MDX%20NSPCC%20OCC%20Online%20Pornography%2016.5.17a.pdf (revised May 2017)
  24. 1 2 3 4 Campo, M. (2016). Children and young people’s exposure to pornography. Retrieved May 15, 2019, from https://aifs.gov.au/cfca/2016/05/04/children-and-young-peoples-exposure-pornography
  25. ↑ Zillmann, Dolf (4 August 1986). "Report of the Surgeon General's Workshop on Pornography and Public Health: Background Papers: 'Effects of Prolonged Consumption of Pornography'". profiles.nlm.nih.gov. pp. 16–17. Archived from the original on July 2, 2003. Retrieved 8 April 2018.
  26. ↑ Thornburgh, Dick; Lin, Herbert S., eds. (2002). Youth, pornography and the Internet. Washington, D.C: National Academy Press. p. 155. ISBN   978-0-309-08274-7. OCLC   52856244.
  27. ↑ Sellgren, Katherine (26 March 2013). "BBC News - Pupils 'should be taught about risks of pornography'". BBC News. Retrieved 13 March 2014.
  28. 1 2 Fidgen, Jo (25 June 2013). "Do we know whether pornography harms people?". BBC News. Retrieved 18 September 2016.
  29. ↑ Horvath, Miranda A. H.; Alys, Llian; Massey, Kristina; Pina, Afroditi; Scally, Mia; Adler, Joanna R. (1 May 2013). "Basically... porn is everywhere: a rapid evidence assessment on the effects that access and exposure to pornography has on children and young people". University of Hertfordshire. Retrieved 7 March 2023.
  30. ↑ Crabbe, Maree & Corlett, David (Directors) (2013). Love and sex in an age of pornography. Australia: Rendered Visible and Looking Glass Pictures.
  31. ↑ Pratt, Russs (6 May 2011). "The 'porn genie' is out of the bottle: Understanding and responding to the impact of pornography on young people". InPsych. 38 (2). Australian Psychological Society: 12–13. Retrieved 14 August 2025.
  32. ↑ Tarrant, Shira (2016). The Pornography Industry: What Everyone Needs to Know. Oxford University Press. p. 150. ISBN   978-0-19-020512-6 . Retrieved 5 September 2025.
  33. ↑ Peter, Jochen; Valkenburg, Patti M. (30 March 2016). "Adolescents and Pornography: A Review of 20 Years of Research". The Journal of Sex Research. 53 (4–5). Informa UK Limited: 509–531. doi: 10.1080/00224499.2016.1143441 . ISSN   0022-4499. PMID   27105446. S2CID   205443959.
  34. ↑ Marks, David F.; Murray, Michael; Estacio, Emee Vida (2018). Health Psychology: Theory, Research and Practice. SAGE Publications. p. 229. ISBN   978-1-5264-1206-5 . Retrieved 7 November 2024.
  35. ↑ Bőthe, Beáta; Vaillancourt-Morel, Marie-Pier; Bergeron, Sophie; Demetrovics, Zsolt (1 December 2019). "Problematic and Non-Problematic Pornography Use Among LGBTQ Adolescents: a Systematic Literature Review" . Current Addiction Reports. 6 (4): 10–12. doi:10.1007/s40429-019-00289-5. ISSN   2196-2952. S2CID   204851036.
  36. ↑
  37. ↑ Raine, Gary; Khouja, Claire; Scott, Rachel; Wright, Kath; Sowden, Amanda J. (6 December 2020). "Pornography use and sexting amongst children and young people: a systematic overview of reviews". Systematic Reviews. 9 (1): 9, 10. doi: 10.1186/s13643-020-01541-0 . ISSN   2046-4053. PMC   7720575 . PMID   33280603.
  38. 1 2 3 Román García, Óscar; Bacigalupe, Amaia; Vaamonde García, Cristina (2021). "[Sexual and reproductive health effects of mainstream pornography use in adolescents]". Revista Española de Salud Pública. 95 (1). PMID   34267175. También es necesario tener en cuenta que puede existir una limitación de causalidad inversa relacionada con los hallazgos actuales sobre la posibilidad de que padecer algún determinado problema de salud mental o tener conductas de agresividad puede conllevar a un aumento de consumo de pornografía mainstream.
  39. ↑ Howitt, Dennis (2022). "9. Sexual offenders 1: rapists". Introduction to Forensic and Criminal Psychology (7 ed.). Pearson Education Limited. p. 166. ISBN   978-1-292-29580-0. • Offenders use pornography, but developmental studies tend not to hold pornography responsible for creating their deviance. There is no simple relationship between sexual fantasy and offending.
  40. ↑ McKee et al. 2022, p. 53.
  41. ↑ Mestre-Bach, Gemma; Chiclana-Actis, Carlos (2022). "Factors associated with adolescent pornography use a narrative review". Psicosomática y Psiquiatría. 21. Spain: 7–11. doi:10.34810/PsicosomPsiquiatrnum210502. ISSN   2565-0564.
  42. ↑ Pathmendra, Pranujan; Raggatt, Michelle; Lim, Megan SC; Marino, Jennifer L.; Skinner, S. Rachel (28 February 2023). "Exposure to Pornography and Adolescent Sexual Behavior: Systematic Review". Journal of Medical Internet Research. 25 (1): 7, 15. doi: 10.2196/43116 . PMC   10015350 . PMID   36853749.
  43. ↑ Oldenhof, Anne; Kraan, Yolin; Beek, Titia; Kuipers, Laurian (2024). Graaf, Hanneke de; Vermey, Koenraad (eds.). Seks onder je 25e. Seksuele gezondheid van jongeren in Nederland anno 2023 [Sex under the age of 25. Sexual health of youth in the Netherlands 2023 AD](PDF) (in Dutch). Eburon. p. 166. ISBN   9789463014984.
  44. 1 2 3 Svedin, C. G.; Donevan, M.; Bladh, M.; Priebe, G.; Fredlund, C.; Jonsson, L. S. (2023). "Associations between adolescents watching pornography and poor mental health in three Swedish surveys". European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 32 (9): 1765–1780. doi:10.1007/s00787-022-01992-x. ISSN   1435-165X. PMC   10460300 . PMID   35524827.
  45. ↑ Peterson, Amy J.; Silver, Gillian K.; Bell, Heather A.; Guinosso, Stephanie A.; Coyle, Karin K. (3 April 2023). "Young People's Views on Pornography and Their Sexual Development, Attitudes, and Behaviors: A Systematic Review and Synthesis of Qualitative Research" . American Journal of Sexuality Education. 18 (2): 1, 6, 11, 13, 14–26, 28. doi:10.1080/15546128.2022.2096163. ISSN   1554-6128. S2CID   250470819.
  46. ↑ Hunt, Jonny (23 February 2024). "Pornography Is Not the Answer (It Isn't Even the Right Question ...): Reflections from Practice in Tackling Sexual Harassment and Harmful Sexualised Behaviours in Response to Everyone's Invited and the Online Safety Bill". In Setty, Emily; Gordon, Faith; Nottingham, Emma (eds.). Children, Young People and Online Harms: Conceptualisations, Experiences and Responses. Springer Nature. p. 280. ISBN   978-3-031-46053-1 . Retrieved 5 September 2025.
  47. ↑ Thimm-Kaiser, Marco; Keyes, Katherine M. (4 June 2025). "US State Policies Regarding Social Media: Do Policies Match the Evidence?". The Milbank Quarterly 1468-0009.70021. doi:10.1111/1468-0009.70021. ISSN   0887-378X. PMID   40462673 . Retrieved 11 July 2025.
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