Sexting

Not to be confused with sexing.

Sexting is sending, receiving, or forwarding sexually explicit messages, photographs, or videos, primarily between mobile phones. It may also include the use of a computer or any digital device. ^[1] The term was first popularized early in the 21st century and is a portmanteau of sex and texting , where the latter is meant in the wide sense of sending a text possibly with images. ^[2] Sexting is not an isolated phenomenon but one of many different types of sexual interaction in digital contexts that is related to sexual arousal. ^[3]

Background

The first published use of the term sexting was in a 2005 article in the Australian Sunday Telegraph Magazine . ^[4] In August 2012, the word sexting was listed for the first time in Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary. ^[5]

The Pew Research Center commissioned a study on sexting, which divides the practice into three types: ^[6]

1. Exchange of images solely between two romantic partners.
2. Exchanges between partners that are shared with others outside the relationship.
3. Exchanges between people who are not yet in a relationship, but where at least one person hopes to be.

Sexting has become more common with the rise in camera phones and smartphones with Internet access, that can be used to send explicit photographs as well as messages. ^[6] While sexting is done by people of all ages, ^[7] most media coverage fixates on negative aspects of adolescent usage. Young adults use the medium of the text message much more than any other new media to transmit messages of a sexual nature, ^[8] and teenagers who have unlimited text messaging plans are more likely to receive sexually explicit texts. ^{[6] [9]}

As a result of sexting being a relatively recent practice, ethics are still being established by both those who engage in it and those who create legislation based on this concept. Whether sexting is seen as a positive or negative experience typically rests on the basis of whether or not consent was given to share the images. Nevertheless, Australian laws currently view under-18s as being unable to give consent to sexting, even if they meet the legal age for sexual consent. ^[10]

Contrary to common misconception, when it comes to preventing abuse among adolescents, consent is more important than trying to stop sexting altogether. ^[11]

Social media applications

Sexting has been promoted further by several direct messaging applications that are available on smartphones. The difference between using these applications and traditional texting is that content is transmitted over the Internet or a data plan, allowing anyone with Internet access to participate. Snapchat appeals to teens because it allows users to send photos for a maximum of ten seconds before they disappear. Many sending photos over Snapchat believe these photos will disappear without consequences, so they feel more secure about sending them. There have been several cases where teens have sent photos over these applications, expecting them to disappear or be seen by the recipient only, yet are saved and distributed, carrying social and legal implications. Even though users believe their photos on Snapchat for example will go away in seconds, it is easy to save them through other photo capturing technology, third party applications, or simple screenshots. These applications claim no responsibility for explicit messages or photos that are saved. Snapchat's privacy policy on sexting has evolved to include sending content over new smartphone applications because of their appealing features such as the anonymity or temporary elements. These applications carry the same risks and consequences that have always existed.

Snapchat

A 2009 study found that 4 percent of teenagers aged 14 to 17 claim to have sent sexually explicit photos of themselves. Fifteen percent of these teens also claimed to have received sexually explicit photos. This suggests a consent issue of people receiving photos without asking for them. This is enhanced with Snapchat, as the person receiving snapchats will not be aware of the contents until they open it, ^[12] and messages are automatically deleted after some time. Although sexting through Snapchat is popular, "joke sexting" is more prevalent among users. Sending sexual images as a joke makes up approximately a quarter of the participants. ^[13]

Relationships

Sexting is a prevalent and normalized practice among youth in many western, liberal democracies. ^[14] Many couples engage in sexting. In a 2011 study, 54% of the sample had sent explicit pictures or videos to their partners at least once, and one third of their sample had engaged in such activities occasionally. ^[15]

In areas where gender roles traditionally expect men to initiate sexual encounters, sexting is used by women to offer nude images to male partners, allowing women greater latitude to instigate sex. ^{[16] [17]} Mass media does not encourage teen or underage sexting, because of the child pornography laws they could violate. ^{[16] [ according to whom? ]} However, a recent study found young women are significantly more likely than young men to be pressured into sending a nude photo, by their partner. ^[18]

In 2013, it was found that sexting is often used to enhance the relationship and sexual satisfaction in a romantic partnership. Sexting thus can be considered a "behaviour that ties into sexuality and the subsequent level of relationship satisfaction experienced by both partners". Based on the interviews conducted by Albury and Crawford, they discovered that sexting is commonly used in positive aspects. According to Albury and Crawford, sexting was not only an activity occurring in the context of flirtation or sexual relationships, but also between friends, as a joke or during a moment of bonding." ^[19] Reportedly, hedonism played a role in motivating sexting, and the length of relationship was negatively correlated with sexting behaviors. The study had a small sample size, so more research needs to be done surrounding sexting and motivation, but it is clear that sexting is a phenomenon that is not constrained to simply unattached individuals looking for fun; it is used by those in intimate relationships to increase feelings of intimacy and closeness to one's partner. ^[19] For teens, sexting can also act as a prelude (or in lieu of) sexual activity, as an experimental phase for those who are yet to be sexually active, and for those who are hoping to start a relationship with someone. ^[6] In a 2013 study conducted by Drouin et al., it was found that sexting is also associated with attachment styles, as those with attachment avoidance are more likely to engage in sexting behaviours (just as these individuals are also more likely to engage in casual sex). Thus, instead of increasing intimacy in these types of relationships, sexting may act as a buffer for physical intimacy. ^[15]

Studies

While some studies have evaluated sexting by married couples or young men who have sex with men, ^[20] the majority of attention is directed at heterosexual adolescents.

Some studies of adolescents find that sexting is correlated with risky sex behaviors, ^{[21] [22] [23] [24] [25]} while other studies have found no link. ^{[14] [26] [27]}

In a 2008 survey of 1,280 teenagers and young adults of both sexes sponsored by The National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy, 20% of teens (13–20) and 33% of young adults (20–26) had sent nude or semi-nude photographs of themselves electronically. Additionally, 39% of teens and 59% of young adults had sent sexually explicit text messages. ^[28]

Sexting became popular among teens around 2009, especially among high school students in the United States, where 20 percent of high school students said they had engaged in sexting or receiving. ^[29]

A widely cited 2011 study indicated the previously reported prevalence was exaggerated. Researchers at the University of New Hampshire (UNH) surveyed 1,560 children between the ages of 10 and 17 and caregivers, reporting that only 2.5 percent of respondents had sent, received or created sexual pictures distributed via cell phone in the previous year. ^[30] The researchers found that the figure rose to 9.6% when the definition was broadened from images prosecutable as child pornography to any suggestive image, not necessarily nude ones. ^[31] A 2012 study conducted by the University of Utah questioned the findings reported by the University of New Hampshire researchers. In the University of Utah's study, researchers Strassberg, McKinnon, et al. surveyed 606 teenagers ages 14 to 18 and found that nearly 20 percent of the students said they had sent a sexually explicit image of themselves via cell phone, and nearly twice as many said that they had received a sexually explicit picture. Strassberg, McKinnon, et al. said the UNH study was technically accurate, but that the inclusion of younger children in the sample misrepresented the prevalence of the practice among mid- and older teenagers. ^{[32] [33] [34] [35]}

According to professor Diane Kholos Wysocki, although both men and women participate in sexting, "women are more likely to sext than men". ^[36] Men are more likely to initiate some form of intimate communication, like sending nude photographs or suggestive text messages. ^[37] According to Amy Adele Hasinoff in the journal New Media & Society , when it comes to sexting, there is a big difference between sexual exploitation and a consensual decision to express one's sexuality and share an image of their own body with someone who wants to see it. women are sexualized whenever they post or share any form of intimate media, while men are not. Hasinoff points out that "Many digital media scholars stress that the Internet can enable young people to explore their identities and develop social and communication skills" (Boyd, 2008; Tynes, 2007), and suggests that consensual sexting might serve a similar function for some people. ^[38]

Risks

Sign at the 2018 Women's March in Oslo, reading, "No More Dickpics"

If a person sends an explicit image of themselves to a partner, then it can be against the law to re-transmit a copy of that image to another person without the consent of the originator. ^{[39] [40]} Some countries have revenge porn laws that prevent the publication of sexual images without the consent of all parties in the image. While there are many possible legal avenues for prosecution of people who knowingly breach the confidence of those sending sexual messages, in practice, nude images can be widely propagated without the consent of the originator. ^[41]

Some young people blackmail their sexual partners and former partners by threatening to release private images of them. ^{[42] [43] [44]} In a study conducted by Drouin et al. analyzing sexting behaviours among young adults, it was found that men would show the sexually explicit photos of their girlfriends to their friends. ^{[8] [45]} This is a new risk associated with new media, as prior to cell phones and email, it would be difficult to quickly distribute photos to acquaintances; with sexting, one can forward a photo in a matter of seconds.

Studies have shown that sex crimes using digital media against minors reflect the same kind of victimization that happens offline. ^[16] Family members, acquaintances and intimate partners make up the mass majority of perpetrators for digital media sex crimes. ^[16] Research by the Internet Watch Foundation in 2012, estimated that 88% of self-made explicit images are "stolen" from their original upload location (typically social networks) and made available on other websites, in particular porn sites collecting sexual images of children and young people. The report highlighted the risk of severe depression for "sexters" who lose control of their images and videos. ^{[46] [47]} Sexting is seen as irresponsible and promiscuous for adolescents, but "fun and flirty" for adults. ^[16] These risks tend to be exaggerated by news media, especially in regards to adolescent girls. ^{[48] [49]}

The University of Utah study (with a population sample of 606 teens aged 14 to 18) stated that about one third of respondents did not consider legal or other consequences when receiving or sending sexts. ^[50] Teenagers may not be thinking about the risks and repercussions when they participate in sexting; however, a study by Kath Albury titled Selfies, Sexts, and Sneaky Hats: Young People's Understandings of Gendered Practices of Self-Presentation ^[51] shows that teenagers engaging in sexting were concerned that their parents may see or find out about their involvement with sexting. Some teenagers shared that their "main risks of parental discovery were embarrassment (for both parents and young people) and 'overreaction' from adults who feared the photo had been shared." ^[52] While teenagers felt less compelled to worry about the legal risks with sexting, they worried that their parents would find out about their involvement with sexting. Albury and Crawford (2012) argue that adolescents are well aware of the differences between consensual sexting and distribution of private images with negative intent. Further, they argue young people are developing norms and ethics of sexting based on consent.^{[ citation needed ]}

Creation and distribution of explicit photos of teenagers violates child pornography laws in many jurisdictions (depending on the age of the people depicted), but this legal restriction does not align with the social norms of the population engaging in the practice, which distinguish between consensual activity and harassment or revenge. ^[16] Senders in some jurisdictions may also be charged with distribution of indecent material to a minor, and could be required to register as a sex offender for life. Child pornography cases involving teen-to-teen sexting have been prosecuted in Oregon, ^{[53] [54]} Virginia, ^[55] Nova Scotia ^[56] and Maryland. ^[57]

While mainstream media outlets, parents, and educators are rightfully worried about the negative legal, social, and emotional ramifications of teen sexting, much less is said about the issue of sexual consent. According to a 2012 study conducted by professors at the University of New South Wales, ^[58] due to child pornography laws that prohibit any minor from consenting to sexual activity, issues of consent among adolescent teens is seldom discussed. Much like the discourse surrounding "abstinence-only" education, the prevailing attitude towards sexting is how to prevent it from occurring rather than accepting its inevitability and channeling it in healthier ways. According to the study, instead of criminalizing teens who participate in sexting, the law should account for whether the images are shared consensually. This would mean adopting an "ethics" approach, one that teaches and guides teens on how to respect bodily autonomy and privacy. A 2019 Journal of Adolescent Health article authored by scholars Justin Patchin and Sameer Hinduja entitled "It's Time to Teach Safe Sexting" offers specific, actionable strategies towards this end within a harm reduction framework. ^[59]

According to a study done by the health journal Pediatrics, more than one in five middle school minors with behavioral or emotional problems has recently engaged in sexting. Those individuals who have reported sexting in the past six months were four to seven times more likely to engage in other sexual activities such as intimate kissing, touching genitals, and having vaginal or oral sex, compared to minors who stated they did not partake in sexting. The study included 420 participants who were between the ages of 12 and 14 years old. The children were pulled from five urban public middle schools in Rhode Island between 2009 and 2012. Seventeen percent of the children tested claimed they had sent a sexually explicit text message in the past six months. Another five percent admitted to sending sexually explicit text messages and nude or semi-nude photos. ^{[60] [61]}

Legal issues

Sexting is generally legal if all parties are over the age of majority and images are sent with their consent and knowledge; however, any type of sexual message that both parties have not consented to can constitute sexual harassment.

Sexting that involves minors under the age of consent sending an explicit photograph of themselves to a romantic partner of the same age can be illegal in countries where anti– child pornography laws require all participants in pornographic media to be over the age of majority. Some teenagers who have texted photographs of themselves, or of their friends or partners, have been charged with distribution of child pornography, while those who have received the images have been charged with possession of child pornography; in some cases, the possession charge has been applied to school administrators who have investigated sexting incidents as well. The images involved in sexting are usually different in both nature and motivation from the type of content that anti-child pornography laws were created to address. ^{[62] [63]}

A 2009 UK survey of 2,094 teens aged 11 to 18 found that 38% had received an "offensive or distressing" sexual image by text or email. ^[64]

In the United States, anyone who is involved in the electronic distribution of sexual photos of minors can face state and federal charges of child pornography. The laws disregard the consent of parties involved: "...regardless of one's age or consent to sexting, it is unlawful to produce, possess, or distribute explicit sexual images of anyone under 18." ^[16] The University of New Hampshire's Crimes Against Children Research Center estimates that 7 percent of people arrested on suspicion of child pornography production in 2009 were teenagers who shared images with peers consensually. ^[65]

Kath Albury discusses in an article titled "Sexting, Consent, and Young People's Ethics: Beyond Megan's Story" that if teens are convicted of a sexting charge, they have to register as a sex offender, and this takes away the impact of the title of sex offender. A girl who agreed to send her girlfriend a naked picture is not as dangerous to the community as a child molester but the charge of sex offender would be applied equally to both of these cases. ^[66]

In a 2013 interview, assistant professor of communications at the University of Colorado Denver, Amy Adele Hasinoff, who studies the repercussions of sexting has stated that the "very harsh" child pornography laws are "designed to address adults exploiting children" and should not replace better sex education and consent training for teens. She went on to say, "Sexting is a sex act, and if it's consensual, that's fine..." "Anyone who distributes these pictures without consent is doing something malicious and abusive, but child pornography laws are too harsh to address it." ^[67]

According to Amy Hasinoff, if sexting was viewed as media production and a consensual activity, this would change the legal assumption that sexting is always non-consensual and reduce the culpability of victimized youth. This turns sexting into a situation that would lead to different legal consequences when distribution of the material was not consented to by the creator. ^[16] Alvin J. Primack, who draws from Amy Hasinoff's work, argued a media production model may be useful for distinguishing between child pornography and sexting from a First Amendment perspective. ^[68] According to Alvin J. Primack, the motivation for creating and distributing sexts (e.g., pleasure, relationship building) differs from the motivation for creating and distributing child pornography (e.g., abuse, exploitation), and the market of circulation is generally different between the two as well. For these reasons, there may be arguments – grounded in reasoning provided by First Amendment doctrine – for finding some youth sexts exchanged between persons who are of the age of consent to be legally-protected speech.

Legal professionals and academics have expressed that the use of "child porn laws" with regard to sexting is "extreme" or "too harsh". Florida cyber crimes defense attorney David S. Seltzer wrote of this that "I do not believe that our child pornography laws were designed for these situations ... A conviction for possession of child pornography in Florida draws up to five years in prison for each picture or video, plus a lifelong requirement to register as a sex offender." ^[69]

Academics have argued that sexting is a broad term for images being sent over Internet and cell phones, between minors, adults, or minors and adults, and in an abusive manner or in an innocent manner. In order to develop policy better suited for adolescent sexting cases, it is necessary to have better terms and categories of sexting. University of New Hampshire typology has suggested the term youth-produced sexual image to classify adolescent sexting. Furthermore, they branch into two sub-categories: aggravated and experimental youth-produced sexual image. Aggravated cases include cases of sexual assault, coercion, cyber-bullying, forwarding images without consent, and abusive behavior. Experimental cases are cases in which an adolescent willingly takes a picture and sends it to someone with no criminal intent and is attention-seeking. ^[70] This terminology could lead to more appropriate action towards adolescents who engage in sexting.

Legal cases

• In 2007, 32 Australian teenagers from the state of Victoria were prosecuted as a result of sexting activity. ^[71]
• In 2008, an assistant principal in the U.S. state of Virginia was charged with possession of child pornography and related crimes after he had been asked to investigate a rumored sexting incident at the high school where he worked. Upon finding a student in possession of a photo on his phone that depicted the torso of a girl wearing only underpants, her arms mostly covering her breasts, the assistant principal showed the image to the principal, who instructed him to preserve it on his computer as evidence, which he did. The court later ruled that the photo did not constitute child pornography because under Virginia law, nudity alone is not enough to qualify an image as child pornography; the image must be "sexually explicit". Loudoun County prosecutor James Plowman stood by his initial assessment of the photo and says he would not have pursued the case if the assistant principal had agreed to resign. Instead, the assistant principal took out a second mortgage on his house and spent $150,000 in attorneys' fees to clear his name. ^{[72] [73]}
• In January 2009, child pornography charges were brought against six teenagers in Greensburg, Pennsylvania, after three girls sent sexually explicit photographs to three male classmates. ^[74]
• In 2009, a Fort Wayne, Indiana, teenage boy faced felony obscenity charges for allegedly sending a photo of his genitals to several female classmates. Another boy was charged with child pornography in a similar case. ^[75]
• In 2009, police investigated an incident at Margaretta High School in Castalia, Ohio, in which a 17-year-old girl allegedly sent nude pictures of herself to her former boyfriend, and the pictures started circulating after they had a quarrel. ^[76] The girl was charged with being an "unruly child" based on her juvenile status. ^[77]
• In 2009, two southwest Ohio teenagers were charged with contributing to the delinquency of a minor, a first-degree misdemeanor, for sending or possessing nude photos on their cell phones of two 15-year-old classmates. ^[78]
• On 25 March 2009, the American Civil Liberties Union filed a lawsuit against Wyoming County, Pennsylvania district attorney George Skumanick Jr. for threatening teenage girls who were the subject of allegedly risque photos with prosecution on child pornography charges if they did not submit to a counseling program. ^[79] The case is Miller, et al. v. Skumanick. ^[80] Skumanick stated in an interview with Julie Chen on CBS News's The Early Show that his office decided to make an offer of limiting penalties to probation if the girls agreed to attend a sexual harassment program. ^{[81] [82]} The girls and their parents won a ruling that blocked the district attorney, who appealed. It is the first appeals court case concerning sexting. ^[83]
• In July 2010, Londonderry High School teacher Melinda Dennehy pleaded guilty and received a one-year suspended sentence for sending racy photos of herself to a 15-year-old student. ^[84]
• In August 2014, a teen from Manassas City, Virginia, was placed on one year's probation after being charged with two counts of child pornography for allegedly sexting an explicit video to his 15-year-old girlfriend. The case become controversial after attempts by the Manassas city police and prosecutors to take pictures of the teen's erect penis as evidence to compare with the video he sent to his girlfriend in January. ^[85]
• In November 2015, officials discovered widespread sexting at Cañon City High School in Colorado. ^[86] Photos of at least 100 different students were involved, in what appeared to be a contest. District Attorney Thom LeDoux said consenting adults can send and receive sext messages, but minors can face felony charges for doing the same. Before deciding to prosecute, he said he would consider if coercion was involved, if adults were involved, and if actual physical contact was made. ^[87] When The New York Times reported on this incident, the reporter referred to a book titled Sexting Panic, written by Adele Hasinoff, an assistant professor at the University of Colorado. Hasinoff said schools should talk to students about sexting, instead of simply demanding that they stop doing it. ^[87]
• In September 2017, the Washington Supreme Court, by a vote of 5–3, upheld the child pornography trafficking conviction of a seventeen-year-old boy for texting a picture of his erect penis to an adult woman. ^[88] The boy, who has Asperger syndrome, was sentenced to 50 hours of community service, 30 days' confinement, and registration as a sex offender. ^[89]
• In March 2019, the school board of Bellport middle school (New York) fired a 25-year-old teacher after a photo surfaced, that she had taken at home sitting on the floor before a mirror, a towel draped across her legs and her breasts exposed. She had only shared the image with a colleague she was dating, who was not disciplined for the dissemination of the photograph among the students of the school. She has sued the school district and its administrators for gender discrimination, commenting "It's always the boys hurting the girls and the girls taking the brunt of it". ^[90]

Legislative responses

In Connecticut, Rep. Rosa Rebimbas introduced a bill that would lessen the penalty for "sexting" between two consenting minors in 2009. The bill would make it a Class A misdemeanor for children under 18 to send or receive text messages with other minors that include nude or sexual images. It is currently a felony for children to send such messages, and violators could end up on the state's sex offender registry. ^[91]

Vermont lawmakers introduced a bill in April 2009 to legalize the consensual exchange of graphic images between two people 13 to 18 years old. Passing along such images to others would remain a crime. ^[92]

In Ohio, a county prosecutor and two lawmakers proposed a law that would reduce sexting from a felony to a first-degree misdemeanor, and eliminate the possibility of a teenage offender being labeled a sex offender for years. The proposal was supported by the parents of Jesse Logan, a Cincinnati 18-year-old who committed suicide after the naked picture of herself which she sexted was forwarded to people in her high school. ^[93]

Utah lawmakers lessened the penalty for sexting for someone younger than 18 to a misdemeanor from a felony. ^[94]

In New York, Assemblyman Ken Zebrowski (D-Rockland) has introduced a bill that will create an affirmative defense where a minor is charged under child pornography laws if they possesses or disseminate a picture of themselves or possess or disseminates the image of another minor (within 4 years of their age) with their consent. The affirmative defense will not be available if the conduct was done without consent. It also creates an educational outreach program for teens that promotes awareness about the dangers of sexting. ^[95]

In the Australian state of Victoria, the law was reformed in 2014 to create a defence for young people who engage in consensual sexting and the introduction of the new offences of distribution of an intimate image, and threat to distribute an intimate image. ^[96]

See also

• Internet portal
• Erotica and pornography portal

• Child pornography
• Cyberbullying
• Cyberflashing
• Cybersex
• Deviancy amplification spiral
• Dick pic
• Erotic talk
• iCloud leaks of celebrity photos
• Moral panic
• Phone sex
• Safe sex
• Text roulette
• Virtual sex

References

1. Salter, Michael (2013). "Beyond Criminalisation and Responsibilitisim Sexting, Gender and Young People". Sydney Law School. 24: 310–315.
2. Redmond, Teresa (22 February 2010). "Ringwood community addresses sexting". NorthJersey.com. North Jersey Media Group. Archived from the original on 28 August 2011. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
3. Döring, Nicola; Krämer, Nicole; Mikhailova, Veronika; Brand, Matthias; Krüger, Tillmann H. C.; Vowe, Gerhard (2021). "Sexual interaction in digital contexts and its implications for sexual health: A conceptual analysis". Frontiers in Psychology . 12: 769732. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.769732 . ISSN   1664-1078. PMC   8669394 . PMID   34916999.
4. Roberts, Yvonne (31 July 2005). "The one and only". Sunday Telegraph Magazine . Sydney, Australia: News Corp Australia. p. 22. Following a string of extramarital affairs and several lurid "sexting" episodes, Warne has found himself home alone, with Simone Warne taking their three children and flying the conjugal coop.
5. Italie, Leanne. "F-bomb makes it into mainstream dictionary". The Washington Times. Archived from the original on 23 January 2023. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
6. Lenhart, Amanda (15 December 2009). Teens and sexting (Report). Pew Internet & American Life Project. Archived from the original on 4 October 2023.
7. McDaniel, Brandon T.; Drouin, Michelle (November 2015). "Sexting among married couples: who is doing it, and are they more satisfied?". Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking. 18 (11): 628–634. doi:10.1089/cyber.2015.0334. PMC   4642829 . PMID   26484980.
8. Drouin, Michelle; Vogel, Kimberly N.; Surbey, Alisen; Stills, Julie R. (September 2013). "Let's talk about sexting, baby: computer-mediated sexual behaviors among young adults". Computers in Human Behavior. 29 (5): A25–A30. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2012.12.030.
9. Teens and Sexting. Amanda Lenhart. 15 December 2009Archived 14 September 2023 at the Wayback Machine
10. Albury, Kath; Crawford, Kate (June 2012). "Sexting, consent and young people's ethics: beyond Megan's Story". Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies . 26 (3): 463–473. doi:10.1080/10304312.2012.665840. S2CID   145401204.
11. The Economist, 28 March 2020, page 26.
12. Lenhard, Amanda. "Teens and Sexting How and why minor teens are sending sexually suggestive nude or nearly nude images via text messaging" (PDF). pewinternet.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 October 2016. Retrieved 4 May 2016.
13. Utz, S.; Muscanell, N.; Khalid, C. (2015). "Snapchat Elicits More Jealousy than Facebook: A Comparison of Snapchat and Facebook Use". Cyberpsychology, Behavior & Social Networking. 18 (3): 141–146. doi:10.1089/cyber.2014.0479. PMID   25667961. S2CID   206158389.
14. Yeung, Timothy H.; Horyniak, Danielle R.; Vella, Alyce M.; Hellard, Margaret E.; Lim, Megan S.C. (September 2014). "Prevalence, correlates and attitudes towards sexting among young people in Melbourne, Australia". Sexual Health. 11 (4): 332–339. doi:10.1071/SH14032. PMID   25087581.
15. Drouin, Michelle; Landgraff, Carly (March 2012). "Texting, sexting, and attachment in college students' romantic relationships". Computers in Human Behavior. 28 (2): 444–449. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2011.10.015.
16. Hasinoff, Amy Adele (June 2013). "Sexting as media production: rethinking social media and sexuality". New Media & Society. 15 (4): 449–465. doi:10.1177/1461444812459171. S2CID   5361448.
17. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 July 2015. Retrieved 14 December 2014.
18. "Brook | Press releases | Digital Romance". www.brook.org.uk. Archived from the original on 29 July 2019. Retrieved 9 October 2018.
19. Parker, Trent; Blackburn, Kristyn M.; Perry, Martha S.; Hawks, Jillian M. (January 2013). "Sexting as an intervention: relationship satisfaction and motivation considerations". The American Journal of Family Therapy. 41 (1): 1–12. doi:10.1080/01926187.2011.635134. S2CID   145445441.
20. Bauermeister, Jose A.; Yeagley, Emily; Meanley, Steven; Pingel, Emily S. (May 2014). "Sexting among young men who have sex with men: results from a national survey". Journal of Adolescent Health . 54 (5): 606–611. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.10.013. PMC   3999214 . PMID   24361235.
21. Temple, Jeff R.; Paul, Jonathan A.; van den Berg, Patricia; Le, Vi Donna; McElhany, Amy; Temple, Brian W. (September 2012). "Teen sexting and its association with sexual behaviors". Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine . 166 (9): 828–833. doi:10.1001/archpediatrics.2012.835. PMC   3626288 . PMID   22751805.
22. Houck, Christopher D.; Barker, David; Rizzo, Christie; Hancock, Evan; Norton, Alicia; Brown, Larry K. (February 2014). "Sexting and sexual behavior in at-risk adolescents". Pediatrics . 133 (2): e276–e282. doi:10.1542/peds.2013-1157. PMC   3904272 . PMID   24394678.
23. Temple, Jeff R.; Le, Vi Donna; van den Berg, Patricia; Ling, Yan; Paul, Jonathan A.; Temple, Brian W. (January 2014). "Brief report: teen sexting and psychosocial health". Journal of Adolescence . 37 (1): 33–36. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.10.008. PMC   3896072 . PMID   24331302.
24. Benotsch, Eric G.; Snipes, Daniel J.; Martin, Aaron M.; Bull, Sheana S. (March 2013). "Sexting, substance use, and sexual risk behavior in young adults". Journal of Adolescent Health . 52 (3): 307–313. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.06.011. PMC   3580005 . PMID   23299017.
25. Rice, Eric; Rhoades, Harmony; Winetrobe, Hailey; Sanchez, Monica; Montoya, Jorge; Plant, Aaron; Kordic, Timothy (October 2012). "Sexually explicit cell phone messaging associated with sexual risk among adolescents". Pediatrics . 130 (4): 667–673. doi:10.1542/peds.2012-0021. PMC   3457617 . PMID   22987882.
26. Gordon-Messer, Deborah; Bauermeister, Jose Arturo; Grodzinski, Alison; Zimmerman, Marc (March 2013). "Sexting among young adults". Journal of Adolescent Health . 52 (3): 301–306. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.05.013. PMC   3580013 . PMID   23299018.
27. Temple, Jeff R.; Choi, HyeJeong (November 2014). "Longitudinal association between teen sexting and sexual behavior". Pediatrics . 134 (5): e1287–e1292. doi:10.1542/peds.2014-1974. PMC   4210802 . PMID   25287459.
28. "Sex and tech" (PDF). The National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy. 10 December 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 June 2010. Retrieved 20 October 2009.
29. ""Sexting" Shockingly Common Among Teens". www.cbsnews.com. 15 January 2009. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014.
30. Namuo, Clynton. "UNH study finds 'sexting' not so prevalent". Union Leader . New Hampshire: Joseph W. McQuaid. Archived from the original on 5 January 2012. Retrieved 10 July 2012.
31. D'Arcy, Janice (5 December 2011). "Kids sexting less common than thought, study says". The Washington Post . Nash Holdings LLC . Retrieved 21 December 2011.
32. Strassberg, Donald; McKinnon, Ryan K. (January 2013). "Sexting by high school students: an exploratory and descriptive study". Archives of Sexual Behavior . 42 (1): 15–21. doi:10.1007/s10508-012-9969-8. PMID   22674035. S2CID   7998778.
33. Abridged text. Archived 16 December 2023 at the Wayback Machine
34. Maffly, Brian. "'Sexting' prevalent among high-schoolers, study finds". Salt Lake Tribune . MediaNews Group. Archived from the original on 17 July 2022. Retrieved 5 July 2012.
35. Collins, Lois (16 June 2012). "As many as 20% of teens have 'sexted', according to new study". Deseret News . Deseret News Publishing Company. Archived from the original on 5 February 2023. Retrieved 23 September 2020.
36. Paul, Pamela (15 July 2011). "Women Are More Likely to 'Sext' Than Men, Study Says: Studied". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331. Archived from the original on 23 July 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2016.
37. "Sext much? If so, you're not alone". Scientific American. Archived from the original on 10 May 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2016.
38. Hasinoff, Amy Adele (1 June 2013). "Sexting as media production: Rethinking social media and sexuality". New Media & Society. 15 (4): 449–465. doi:10.1177/1461444812459171. ISSN   1461-4448. S2CID   5361448.
39. Offenses can include issues like breach of confidence or copyright infringement, as well as laws around surveillance devices, or laws relating to stalking and blackmail. See:
    • Report of the Law Reform Committee for the Inquiry into Sexting (PDF) (Report). Parliament of Australia. 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 October 2023.
    • Gotsis, Tom (August 2015). "Revenge pornography, privacy and the law" (PDF). E-brief. 7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 August 2015.
    • Svantesson, Dan Jerker B. (July 2011). "'Sexting' and the law - how Australia regulates electronic communication of non-professional sexual content". Bond Law Review. 22 (2): 41–57. doi: 10.53300/001c.5554 .
40. 'Sexting' and The Law - How Australia Regulates Electronic Communication of Non-Professional Sexual Content Bond Law Review. Vol. 22, No. 2. Dan Svantesson Archived 2023-04-04 at the Wayback Machine
41. Davies, Shaun (17 January 2009). "Kids face porn charges over 'sexting'". National Nine News . Nine Network. Archived from the original on 24 September 2011. Retrieved 20 January 2009.
42. Goodchild van Hilten, Lucy (5 June 2015). "Sexting coercion is on the rise – and can be as traumatic as partner violence". elsevier.com/connect. Elsevier Connect. Archived from the original on 5 February 2023.
43. Keene, Casey (3 June 2013). "What is the connection between sexting and sexual violence?". Violence Against Women News Blog. Violence Against Women. Archived from the original on 3 November 2015.
44. Woodlock, Delanie (2015). "The abuse of technology in domestic violence and stalking" (PDF). Violence Against Women. 23 (5): 584–602. doi:10.1177/1077801216646277. PMID   27178564. S2CID   26463963.
45. Gordon-Smith, Eleanor (2 September 2014). "It's not just strangers on the internet who steal and abuse personal images of women". junkee.com. Junkee. Archived from the original on 5 February 2023.
46. Topping, Alexandra (22 October 2012). "'Parasite' porn websites stealing images and videos posted by young people". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 10 December 2023. Retrieved 23 October 2012.
47. Topping, Alexandra (23 October 2012). "'Parasite' porn sites stealing images and videos posted by teens". The Sydney Morning Herald. Fairfax Media. Archived from the original on 5 February 2023. Retrieved 23 October 2012.
48. Cassell, Justine; Cramer, Meg (2008), "High tech or high risk: moral panics about girls online" (PDF), in McPherson, Tara (ed.), Digital youth, innovation, and the unexpected (PDF), The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation Series on Digital Media and Learning, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, pp. 53–76, ISBN   978-0-262-63359-8.
49. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 January 2016. Retrieved 5 February 2016.
50. Lohmann, Raychelle Cassada (20 July 2012). "The dangers of teen sexting (blog)". Psychology Today . Sussex Publishers. Archived from the original on 5 January 2023. Retrieved 15 April 2013.
51. Albury, Kath (15 May 2015). "Selfies- Selfies, Sexts and Sneaky Hats: Young People's Understandings of Gendered Practices of Self-Representation". International Journal of Communication. 9: 12 – via ijoc.org.
52. Albury, Kath (2005). "Selfies, Sexts, and Sneaky Hats: Young People's Understandings of Gendered Practices of Self-Representation". International Journal of Communication. 9.
53. Tobias, Lori (28 March 2009). "'Sexting' in Newport: dumb prank or child porn?". The Oregonian . Advance Publications . Retrieved 6 February 2016.
54. Moore, Wanda (28 February 2014). "Teen sexting: One photo sent, life changed forever". KTVZ.com. Oregon: NBC. Archived from the original on 1 February 2016. Retrieved 6 February 2016.
55. Van Camp, Jeffrey (12 July 2014). "Underage sexting isn't ruining lives, draconian laws are (and we need to change them)". digitaltrends.com. Archived from the original on 5 February 2023. Retrieved 6 February 2016.
56. Schwartz, Daniel (13 August 2013). "The fine line between 'sexting' and child pornography". CBC News . Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 10 August 2023. Retrieved 6 February 2016.
57. Victoria Bekiempis (31 August 2019). "Maryland court: teen girl who sexted friends violated child pornography laws". The Guardian. UK. Archived from the original on 18 May 2023.
58. Albury, Kath; Crawford, Kate (1 June 2012). "Sexting, consent and young people's ethics: Beyond Megan's Story". Continuum. 26 (3): 463–473. doi:10.1080/10304312.2012.665840. S2CID   145401204.
59. Patchin, Justin W.; Hinduja, Sameer (2020). "It is Time to Teach Safe Sexting". Journal of Adolescent Health. 66 (2). Elsevier BV: 140–143. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2019.10.010 . ISSN   1054-139X. PMID   31831321. S2CID   209342093.
60. Seaman, Andrew (6 January 2014). "Sexting common, linked to sex among high-risk youth". ca.news.yahoo.com. Reuters. Archived from the original on 5 February 2023. Retrieved 6 January 2014.
61. Rice, Eric; Rhoades, Harmony; Winetrobe, Hailey; Sanchez, Monica; Montoya, Jorge; Plant, Aaron; Kordic, Timothy (October 2012). "Sexually explicit cell phone messaging associated with sexual risk among adolescents". Pediatrics . 130 (4): 667–673. doi:10.1542/peds.2012-0021. PMC   3457617 . PMID   22987882.
62. Clark-Flory, Tracy (20 February 2009). "The new pornographers". Salon.com . Salon Media Group. Archived from the original on 2 September 2011. Retrieved 6 February 2016.
63. Schmitz, Sandra; Siry, Lawrence (May 2011). "Teenage folly or child abuse? State responses to "sexting" by minors in the U.S. and Germany". Policy & Internet. 3 (2): 25–50. doi:10.2202/1944-2866.1127.
64. Staff writer (4 August 2009). "Truth of sexting amongst UK teens". Beatbullying.org. Archived from the original on 8 August 2009. Retrieved 20 October 2009.
65. Wolak, Janis; Finkelhor, David; Mitchel, Kimberly J. "Trends in Arrests for Child Pornography Production: The Third National Juvenile Online Victimization Study (NJOV-3)". Archived from the original on 15 November 2023. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
66. [Kath Albury & Kate Crawford (2012): Sexting, consent and young people's ethics: Beyond Megan's Story, Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies, 26:3, 463-473], more text.
67. Seidman, Karen (16 November 2013). "Child pornography laws 'too harsh' to deal with minors sexting photos without consent, experts say". National Post News. Canada. Retrieved 27 March 2014.
68. Primack, Alvin J. (2017). "Youth sexting and the First Amendment: Rhetoric and child pornography doctrine in the age of translation". New Media & Society. 20 (8): 2917–2933. doi:10.1177/1461444817737297. S2CID   52014399.
69. Seltzer, David S. (19 December 2008). "Miami criminal defense lawyer". cybercrimelawyerblog.com. Seltzer Law, Pennsylvania. Archived from the original on 1 February 2017. Retrieved 6 February 2016.
70. Judge, Abigail (2012). ""Sexting" Among U.S. Adolescents: Psychological and Legal Perspectives" (PDF). Harvard Review of Psychiatry. 20 (2): 86–96. doi:10.3109/10673229.2012.677360. PMID   22512742. S2CID   20530733. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 February 2023.
71. Porter, Liz (10 August 2008). "Malice in wonderland". The Age . Melbourne: Fairfax Media . Retrieved 23 September 2020.
72. Zetter, Kim (3 April 2009). "'Sexting' hysteria falsely brands educator as child pornographer". Wired . Condé Nast . Retrieved 6 February 2016.
73. Oei, Ting-Yi (19 April 2009). "My students. My cellphone. My ordeal". The Washington Post. Retrieved 4 March 2009.
74. Pilkington, Ed (14 January 2009). "Sexting craze leads to child pornography charges". The Guardian. Retrieved 14 January 2009.
75. Irvine, Martha; Associated Press (4 February 2009). "Porn charges for 'sexting' stir debate". NBC News. Archived from the original on 28 March 2014. Retrieved 6 February 2016.
76. Staff writer (20 March 2009). "Castalia police look into complaint of nude photos sent by cell phone". Sandusky Register. Ohio. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 6 February 2016.
77. Bixler, Leslie (3 April 2009). "Girl, 17, charged for sending naked photographs". The News-Messenger. Fremont, Ohio: USA Today . Retrieved 6 February 2016.
78. Staff writer (4 March 2009). "Two mason teenagers charged in 'sexting' case". WLWT . Cincinnati, Ohio: Hearst Television. Archived from the original on 16 January 2019.
79. Staff writer (25 March 2009). "ACLU sues Wyoming County D.A. for threatening teenage girls with child pornography charges over photos of themselves". aclupa.org (Press release). American Civil Liberties Union. Archived from the original on 30 March 2009. Retrieved 6 February 2016.
80. Staff writer. "Miller, et al v. Skumanick". aclupa.org. American Civil Liberties Union. Archived from the original on 22 February 2010. Retrieved 29 March 2009.
81. Staff writer (27 March 2009). "Sexting girls facing porn charge sue D.A." CBS News . Retrieved 29 March 2009.
82. Heflick, Nathan (29 March 2009). "My 1st bra, my 1st sexual offense (blog)". Psychology Today . Sussex Publishers. Retrieved 2 April 2009.^{[ dead link ‍]}
83. Gorenstein, Nathan (16 January 2010). "Appeals court considers: Is 'sexting' pornography?". The Philadelphia Inquirer. H.F. Gerry Lenfest. Archived from the original on 9 February 2010. Retrieved 28 August 2010.
84. Pike, Julie (27 July 2010). "Ex-teacher guilty plea, nude photo of Melinda Dennehy sent to student". National Ledger. Archived from the original on 11 February 2011. Retrieved 29 July 2010.
85. Jackman, Tom (1 August 2014). "Manassas City teen placed on probation in 'sexting' case where police sought photos". The Washington Post . Nash Holdings LLC . Retrieved 4 March 2015.
86. "Students could face charges in Colorado High School sexting scandal". NBC News . Associated Press. 7 November 2015. Retrieved 7 November 2015.
87. Cloos, Kassondra; Turkewitz, Julie (7 November 2015). "Hundreds of nude photos jolt Colorado school". The New York Times . Retrieved 6 February 2016.
88. State v. Gray, 402P.3d254 (Wash.2017).
89. Note (2018). "Recent Case: Washington Supreme Court Affirms Child Pornography Conviction of Teenager" (PDF). Harv. L. Rev. 131: 1505. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 March 2021.
90. Lucia Graves (19 April 2019) Graves, Lucia (19 April 2019). "A topless photo ruined this teacher's career. Now she's speaking out". The Guardian., The Guardian.
91. Falcone, Amanda (5 April 2010). "Rookie legislator in national eye with bill To lessen 'sexting' penalty for consenting minors". Hartford Courant. Tribune Publishing. Retrieved 6 February 2016.
92. Associated Press (13 April 2009). "Vermont considers legalizing teen 'sexting'". Fox News Channel. Archived from the original on 16 April 2009. Retrieved 6 February 2016.
93. Russ, Dick (13 April 2009). "Ohio to address 'sexting' laws". WKYC-TV . Cleveland, Ohio: Tegna, Inc. Retrieved 6 February 2016.
94. Associated Press (11 March 2009). "Utah lawmakers OK bill on 'sexting'". Standard-Examiner . Ogden, Utah: Ogden Publishing Corporation. Archived from the original on 10 June 2017. Retrieved 6 February 2016.
95. Galef, Sandy (16 December 2015). "Bill no: A08622 summary". assembly.state.ny.us. New York State Assembly . Retrieved 6 February 2016.
96. "Victoria passes 'sexting' laws..." 16 October 2014. Archived from the original on 29 September 2023.

Further reading

Books

• Hasinoff, Amy Adele (2015). Sexting panic: rethinking criminalization, privacy, and consent. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. ISBN   9780252080623.
• Hiestand, Todd C.; Weins, W. Jesse (2014). Sexting and youth: a multidisciplinary examination of research, theory, and law. Durham, North Carolina: Carolina Academic Press. ISBN   9781611633863.
• Lane, Frederick S. (2011). Cybertraps for the young . Chicago: NTI Upstream. ISBN   9780984053162.

Journal articles

• Gregory, Tim (October 2015). "Sexting and the politics of the image: when the invisible becomes visible in a consensus democracy". Porn Studies . 2 (4): 342–355. doi:10.1080/23268743.2015.1059773.
• Lippmann, Julia R.; Campbell, Scott W. (2014). "Damned if you do, damned if you don't…if you're a girl: Relational and normative contexts of adolescent sexting in the United States". Journal of Children and Media . 8 (4): 371–386. doi: 10.1080/17482798.2014.923009 . S2CID   143705955. - Published online on 6 June 2014
• Lounsbury, Kaitlin; Mitchell, Kimberly J.; Finkelhor, David (April 2011). "The true prevalence of sexting". Crimes Against Children Research Center, University of New Hampshire. Pdf.
• Nunziato, Dawn C. (Winter 2012). "Romeo and Juliet online and in trouble: criminalizing depictions of teen sexuality (c u l8r:g2g 2 jail)". Northwestern Journal of Technology and Intellectual Property . 10 (3): 57–92. Pdf.
• Renfrow, Daniel G.; Rollo, Elisabeth A. (November 2014). "Sexting on campus: minimizing perceived risks and neutralizing behaviors". Deviant Behavior . 35 (11): 903–920. doi:10.1080/01639625.2014.897122. S2CID   144436848.
• Schmitz, Sandra; Siry, Lawrence (May 2011). "Teenage folly or child abuse? State responses to "sexting" by minors in the U.S. and Germany". Policy & Internet . 3 (2): 25–50. doi:10.2202/1944-2866.1127.
• Scholes-Balog, Kirsty; Francke, Nicole; Hemphill, Sheryl (April–June 2016). "Relationships between sexting, self-esteem, and sensation seeking among Australian young adults". Sexualization, Media, and Society . 2 (2): 237462381562779. doi: 10.1177/2374623815627790 . S2CID   147660322.

Reports

• Lenhart, Amanda (15 December 2009). "Teens and sexting: how and why minor teens are sending sexually suggestive nude or nearly nude images via text messaging". pewinternet.org. Pew Internet and American Life Project. Archived from the original on 24 June 2011. Retrieved 31 December 2009.
• Walsh, Wendy A.; Wolak, Janis; Finkelhor, David (January 2013). "Sexting: when are state prosecutors deciding to prosecute? The third national juvenile online victimization study (NJOV-3)". Crimes Against Children Research Center. Pdf.

Media

• Caron, Christina (10 November 2011). "Teen sexting linked to psychological distress". ABC News . ABC.
• Celizic, Mike (6 March 2009). "Her teen committed suicide over 'sexting'". NBC News . NBC.
• Reimer, Susan (6 January 2009). "The Middle Ages: Young people, texting and sexting". The Baltimore Sun . Tribune Publishing.
• Richmond, Riva (26 March 2009). "Gadgetwise (blog): sexting may place teens at legal risk". The New York Times .
• Stone, Gigi (13 March 2009). "'Sexting' teens can go too far". ABC News . ABC.
• Rommelmann, Nancy (4 June 2009). "Anatomy of a child pornographer: 'What happens when adults catch teenagers "sexting" photos of each other? The death of common sense.'". Reason . Reason Foundation . Retrieved 9 August 2016.

External links

• Bowker, Art, M.A., and Michael Sullivan, J.D.. "Sexting Risky Actions and Overreactions." (Archive) Federal Bureau of Investigation. July 2010.
• "Nothing shameful about sexting?" findings of a new report, "Young People and Sexting in Australia: ethics, representation and the law"
• 2014 Fresh Air piece (audio here ) and Atlantic article on sexting in Louisa County, Virginia