Ottoman Serbia refers to the Ottoman period in the history of Serbia. Various regions of medieval Serbia came under Ottoman rule already at the end of the 14th century, while the Serbian Despotate fell in 1459. Northern regions of what is now the Republic of Serbia were incorporated into the Ottoman Empire during later conquests, from 1521 to 1552. Since the Habsburg expansion towards those northern regions, in 1699 and 1718, Ottoman rule was gradually reduced to Serbian territories south of the Sava and Danube rivers (1739). From 1804 to 1830, the Principality of Serbia was gradually restored, as a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire. It gained independence in 1878, and expanded into southern regions, thus reducing Ottoman control to the historical region of the Old Serbia, that was liberated in 1912, thus ending Ottoman rule in Serbian lands.[1]
The Ottoman conquest of the Balkans was initiated in the middle of the 15th century, leding to consequent conflicts with various Serbian states. The Ottomans defeated the Serbs at the Battle of Maritsa in 1371, and again at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, forcing several Serbian regional lords to became sultan's vassals. In 1439, the Serbian Despotate was conquered for the first time, but restored in 1444. In 1459, the Despotate was conquered again, this time finally. Similarly, the Principality of Zeta was conquered by the Ottomans for the first time in 1479, but restored in 1481, to be finally conquered in 1496. In the meantime, the Kingdom of Bosnia was conquered by the ottomans in 1463, and the Duchy of Saint Sava in 1482. Thus by the end of the 15th century, Ottoman rule was established firmly, by imposing new provincial administration in conquered lands.[2][3]
During the later periods, several revolts broke out against Ottoman rule in various Serbian lands, mostly with the help of the Habsburg Monarchy. Such were the Banat Uprising in 1594, the Uprising of 1688-1690, the Uprising of 1716–1718, and the Uprising of 1788-1791. Those uprisings were marked by the Great Migrations of the Serbs. In 1804, the Great Serbian Uprising boke out, leading to partial liberation of Serbia. It was crushed by the Ottomans in 1813, but already in 1815 the Second Serbian Uprising broke out, resulting in a new political settlement and the creation of the autonomous Principality of Serbia. Its territory was expanded in 1833, and again in 1878, also gaining full independence from the sultan and thus reducing Ottoman rule to historical regions of the Old Serbia. Those regions were liberated in 1912, thus ending the Ottoman period in the history of Serbia.[4][5]
States that emerged after dissolution of Serbian Empire in the 14th century
Ottoman conquest (1371–1552)
Kosovka devojka (The Kosovo Maiden), a picture by Uroš Predić
The Ottoman Turks defeated Serbian armies at the battle of Maritsa in 1371, where Serbian king Vukašin and despot Jovan Uglješa were killed, and again at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, where Serbian prince Lazar and Ottoman sultan Murad I were killed. During that period, several regional lords were forced to became Ottoman vassals: king Marko, despot Jovan Dragaš and lord Konstantin Dejanović in 1371 and prince Stefan Lazarević in 1389. Already in 1386, Ottomans took Niš, and in 1392 they also took Skopje from Serbian lord Vuk Branković, who also became Ottoman vassal. In 1395, at the battle of Rovine, king Marko and lord Konstantin Dejanović were killed, and Ottomans annexed their domains, excluding the region of Vranje, that was held by Uglješa Vlatković, who also became Ottoman vassal.[6]
The Battle of Kosovo defined the long-term fate of Serbia, because now it had no force capable of standing up to the Ottoman Turks directly. This was followed by an unstable period marked by the rule of Prince Lazar's son — despot Stefan Lazarević, who was at first a vassal of Sultan Bayezid I, distinguishing himself at the Battle of Nicopolis in 1396 and at Ankara in 1402, and later gaining independence after the death of Bayezid. His cousin and heir Đurađ Branković moved the capital of the Serbian Despotate to the newly built fortified town of Smederevo. The Turks continued their conquest until they finally seized remaining southern regions in 1455, establishing there the Sanjak of Vučitrn and the Sanjak of Prizren, and then proceeded by conquering all of northern territory of the Serbian Despotate by 1459, establishing there the Sanjak of Kruševac and the Sanjak of Smederevo. The only free Serbian territories remained as parts of Bosnia and Zeta. After the fall of the Duchy of Saint Sava in 1481-1482, and Principality of Zeta in 1496, Serbian lands were ruled by the Ottoman Empire for almost three centuries. Traditions of the Serbian Despotate were continued in southern parts of the Kingdom of Hungary by exiled members of the Branković dynasty and their successors until 1537.[7][8]
From the 14th century onward an increasing number of Serbs began migrated north to the in southern parts of the Kingdom of Hungary, mainly the region today known as Vojvodina. The Hungarian kings encouraged the immigration of Serbs to the kingdom, and hired many of them as soldiers and border guards. Therefore, the Serb population of this region highly increased. During the struggle between the Ottoman Empire and Hungary, this Serb population attempted a restoration of the Serbian state. In the battle of Mohač on August 29, 1526, Ottoman Turkey destroyed the army of the Hungarian–BohemiankingLouis Jagellion, who was killed on the battlefield. After this battle Hungary broke up into three parts, and much of its former territory became part of the Ottoman Empire. Soon after the Battle of Mohač the leader of Serbian mercenaries in Hungary, Jovan Nenad "The Black", established his rule in Bačka, northern Banat, and a small part of Srem (These three regions are now parts of Vojvodina). He created an independent state with the city of Subotica as its capital. At the peak of his power Jovan Nenad crowned himself in Subotica as the Serb emperor. Taking advantage of the extremely confused military and political situation, the Hungarian noblemen from the region joined forces against him and defeated the Serbian troops in the summer of 1527. Emperor Jovan Nenad was assassinated and his state collapsed.
Ottoman miniature depicting the execution of Serbian rebels in Belgrade.
European powers, and Austria in particular, fought many wars against the Ottoman Empire, relying on the help of the Serbs who lived under Ottoman rule. During the Austro-Turkish War (1593–1606), in 1594, the Serbs staged an uprising in Banat, the Pannonian part of Turkey. Sinan Pasha retaliated by burning the remains of Saint Sava, the most sacred Serbian saint. Serbs created another center of resistance in Herzegovina, but when peace was signed by Turkey and Austria, they were abandoned to Turkish retaliation. This sequence of events became usual in the centuries that followed.
During the 16th and the 17th centuries, several Serbian uprisings against Ottoman rule broke out in various regions. In the Banat region, which then formed part of the Ottoman Eyalet of Temeşvar, in the area around Vršac, a large uprising began against the Ottoman Empire in 1594. It was the largest uprising of Serbian people against Ottoman rule till date. The leader of this uprising was Teodor Nestorović, the Bishop of Vršac. Other leaders were Sava Ban and voivodeVelja Mironić.
For a short time, the Serb rebels captured several cities in Banat, including Vršac, Bečkerek, and Lipova, as well as Titel and Bečej in Bačka. The size of this uprising is illustrated by the verse from one Serbian national song: "Sva se butum zemlja pobunila, Šest stotina podiglo se sela, Svak na cara pušku podigao!" ("The whole land has rebelled, six hundred villages arose, everybody pointed his gun against the emperor"). The rebellion had the character of a holy war, the Serb rebels carrying flags with the image of Saint Sava. Sinan Pasha, who led the Ottoman army, ordered the green flag of Muhammad brought from Damascus to counter the Serbian flag, and burned the mortal remains of Saint Sava in Belgrade.
The Great War between Ottomans and the Holy League took place from 1683 to 1699. The Holy League was created with the sponsorship of the Pope and included Austria, Poland and Venice. These three powers incited the Serbs to rebel against the Ottoman authorities, and soon uprisings and guerrilla warfare spread throughout the western Balkans, ranging from Montenegro and the Dalmatian coast to the Danube basin and Old Serbia (Macedonia, Raška, Kosovo and Metohija). In 1688, Habsburg forces captured Belgrade, but lost the city already in 1690.[15] However, when the Austrians started to pull out of Serbia, they invited the Serbian people to come north with them to the Austrian territories. Having to choose between Ottoman reprisal and living in a Christian state, Serbs abandoned their homesteads and headed north, led by Serbian Patriarch Arsenije III.[16][17]
In the meanwhile, a Serbian-Russian noble, count Sava Vladislavich maintained contacts with Ottoman Serbs and was under the impression that they would rise in revolt against the Sultan as soon as Russians invaded the Danubian Principalities. Having launched the invasion in 1711, Tsar Peter sent him on a mission to Moldavia and Montenegro, whose population Vladislavich was expected to incite to rebellion. Little came of these plans, despite the assistance of a pro-Russian colonel, Michael Miloradovich (the ancestor of Count Miloradovich).[19] Much later, Petar I Petrović-Njegoš, the Prince-Bishop of Montenegro (Serbian Orthodox Bishop of Cetinje), conceived a plan to form a new Serbian Empire out of Bosnia, central Serbia, Herzegovina and Montenegro with Boka, with Dubrovnik as its Imperial Capital. In 1807, he sent a letter to the Russian General of the Danube Army regarding this subject: "The Russian Czar would be recognized as the Tsar of the Serbs and the Metropolitan of Montenegro would be his assistant. The leading role in the restoration of the Serbian Empire belongs to Montenegro."
In the latter half of the XVIII century, officer Koča Anđelković led a successful Serbian rebellion against the Ottomans, during the last Habsburg-Ottoman war (1788–1791), hoping to place central Serbia under the Habsburg rule. The liberated territory was thus known as Koča's Frontier. The rebellion ended with the Treaty of Sistova and the withdrawal of Habsburgs in 1791-1792.[20]
In the same tame, a prominent Serbian nobleman Sava Tekelija from the Habsburg Monarchy, conceived a plan for liberation of Serbian regions and recreation of national statehood. In the assembly of Serbian representatives, that was held in Temišvar (1790), he made a speech pleading for the legal inclusion of Serbian privileges into Hungarian state laws, and during the First Uprising (1804-1813) against the Ottoman rule, he made a map of Serbian lands that served as a political manifest. He sent letters to Napoleon proposing the establishment of a South Slavic political unit with Serbia at its core. To achieve that goal, he suggested that France should help the Serbs in order to suppress Russian influence in these territories. He sent a similar letter to Austrian Emperor Francis I in 1805. His project implied an establishment of a Serbian state, or more generally, a South Slavic state.[21]
Ottoman Serbia 1791–1804
Belgrade pashaluk (Sanjak of Smederevo) in 1791Dahias (renegade Janissary) assassinate Hadži Mustafa Pasha, plate from 1802
The withdrawal of the Austrians from Serbia in 1791 marked the end of the Serbian rebellion, which had been supported by Austria since 1787-1788. However Austria needed to settle the war, and returned the Belgrade region to the Ottoman Empire. Despite guarantees that Austria had insisted on, many of the participants in the uprising and their families went into exile in Austria. Reforms made by the Porte to ease the pressure on Serbs were only temporary; by 1799 the Janissary corps had returned, suspended Serb autonomy and drastically increased taxes, enforcing martial law in Serbia.[22]
In 1802, renegade Janissary leaders, known as dahias, imprisoned and murdered Hadji Mustafa Pasha, sultan's governor in Belgrade, and imposed the rule of terror. Serbian leaders from both sides of the Danube began to conspire against the dahias. When they were found out in 1804, dahias rounded up and murdered 70 prominent Serbian leaders and priests, many of them being tortured and publicly executed in a spree of terror, known as the Slaughter of the Knezes.[22]
The Slaughter of the Knezes at the beginning of 1804 outraged the Serbian people and incited the revolt across the Pashaluk of Belgrade. Within days, in the small Šumadija village of Orašac, the Serbs gathered on February 14th to proclaim the uprising, electing Đorđe Petrović, known as Kara-Đorđe (Black George) as the leader. That afternoon, a Turkish inn (caravanserai) in Orašac was burned and its residents fled or were killed, followed by similar actions country-wide. Soon the cities Valjevo and Požarevac were liberated, and the siege of Belgrade launched.[23]
Initially fighting to restore their local privileges within the Ottoman system (until 1807), the rebels – supported by the wealthy Serbian community from the southern regions of the Austrian Empire (present-day Vojvodina) and Serbian officers from the Austrian Military Frontier – offered themselves to be placed under the protection of Habsburg, Russian and French Empires respectively, entering, as a new political factor, into the converging aspirations of the Great Powers during the Napoleonic wars in Europe.[24]
During the almost 10 years of the First Serbian Uprising (1804–1813), Serbia perceived itself as an independent state for the first time, after more than 300 years of continous Ottoman and short periods of Habsburg occupations. Encouraged by the Russian Empire, demands for self-government within the Ottoman Empire in 1804 developed into a war for independence by 1807. Combining patriarchal peasant democracy with modern national goals, the Serbian revolution was attracting thousands of volunteers among Serbs from across the Balkans and Central Europe. The Serbian Revolution ultimately became a symbol of the nation-building process in the Balkans, provoking peasant unrest among Christians in both Greece and Bulgaria.[25]
Following a successful siege with 25,000 men, on 8 January 1807 the charismatic leader of the revolt, Karađorđe Petrović, proclaimed Belgrade the capital of Serbia.
Serbian rebels also decided to establish their separate institutions: Governing Council (Praviteljstvujušči Sovjet) and other administrative bodies, aswell as educational institutions such as the Grand School (Velika škola) and the Theological Semminary (Bogoslovija). Karađorđe and other revolutionary leaders sent their children to the Grand School, which also had among its students Vuk Stefanović Karadžić (1787–1864), the famous reformer of the Serbian alphabet. Belgrade was repopulated by local military leaders, merchants and craftsmen, but also by an important group of enlightened Serbs from the Habsburg Empire who gave a new cultural and political framework to the egalitarian peasant society of Serbia. Dositej Obradović, a prominent figure of the Balkan Enlightenment, the founder of the Great Academy, became the first Minister of Education in modern Serbia in 1811.[26]
Following the French invasion in 1812 the Russian Empire withdrew its support for the Serb rebels. Unwilling to accept anything less than independence,[27] the revolutionaries were fought into submission following the Ottoman incursion into Serbia. One quarter of Serbia's population (at that moment around 100,000 people) were exiled into the Habsburg Empire, including the leader of the Uprising, Karađorđe Petrović. Recaptured by the Ottomans in October 1813, Belgrade became a scene of brutal revenge, with hundreds of its citizens massacred, and thousands sold into slavery as far away as Asia. Direct Ottoman rule also meant the abolition of all Serbian institutions, including the Grand School (Velika škola) and the return of Ottoman Turks to Serbia.[28]
Despite the Ottoman reconquest, tensions nevertheless persisted. In 1814 the unsuccessful Hadži-Prodan's rebellion was launched by Hadži Prodan Gligorijević, a veteran of the First Serbian Uprising. He knew the Turks would arrest him, so he thought it best to resist the Ottomans. Milos Obrenović, another veteran, felt the time was not right for an uprising and did not provide assistance. Turkish authorities responded to the rebellion by massacring the local population and publicly impaling 200 prisoners at Belgrade. Hadži Prodan's uprising soon failed and he fled to Austria. [27]
Second Serbian Uprising
Principality of Serbia after Second Serbian Uprising (1815)
The Second Serbian Uprising (1815) was a second phase of the national revolution of the Serbs against the Ottoman Empire, which erupted shortly after the brutal annexation of the country to the Ottoman Empire and the failed Hadži Prodan's revolt. The revolutionary council proclaimed an uprising in Takovo on April 23, 1815, with Milos Obrenović chosen as the leader (while Karađorđe was still in exile in Austria). The decision of Serbian leaders was based on two reasons. First, they feared a general massacre of knezes. Second, they learned that Karađorđe was planning to return from exile in Russia. The anti-Karađorđe faction, including Miloš Obrenović, was anxious to forestall Karađorđe and keep him out of power.[28]
Fighting resumed at Easter in 1815, and Milos became the supreme leader of the new revolt. When the Ottomans discovered this they sentenced all of its leaders to death. The Serbs fought in battles at Ljubić, Čačak, Palez, Požarevac and Dublje and managed to reconquer the Pashaluk of Belgrade. Milos advocated a policy of restraint: captured Ottoman soldiers were not killed and civilians were released. His announced goal was not independence but to put an end to abusive misrule.[29]
Wider European events now helped the Serbian cause. Political and diplomatic means in negotiations between the Prince of Serbia and the Ottoman Porte, instead of further war clashes coincided with the political rules within the framework of Metternich's Europe. Prince Miloš Obrenović, an astute politician and able diplomat, in order to confirm his hard-won loyalty to the Porte in 1817 ordered the assassination of Karađorđe Petrović. The final defeat of Napoleon in 1815 raised Turkish fears that Russia might again intervene in the Balkans. To avoid this the sultan agreed to make Serbia suzerain – a semi-independent state nominally responsible to the Porte.[1]
Ottoman Serbia from 1815 to 1912
Expansion of the renewed Serbian state into Ottoman Serbia from 1815 to 1912
Since 1815, Ottoman Serbia was politically divided between the autonomous Principality of Serbia that was under sultans suzerainty, and the rest of Serbian regions that were under direct Ottoman rule. In 1833, a sultans charter (Hatt-i sharif) was issued, granting the expansion of the Principality towards six bordering regions. In 1841, the Niš rebellion broke out, but it was suppressed by Ottoman authorities.[30]
During the Serbian–Ottoman Wars (1876–1878), southern regions were liberated and incorporated into the Principality, that was recognized as an independent state at the Congress of Berlin (1878), thus ending Ottoman suzerainty over the Serbian state, that was risen to the rank of Kingdom in 1882. Remaining Serbian regions under Ottoman rule were known as the Old Serbia. Those territories were liberated during the Balkan Wars (1912-1913) and incorporated into the Kingdom of Serbia, thus ending the Ottoman rule in Serbian lands.[31]
Ottoman Serbs, who were Serbian Orthodox Christian, belonged to the Rum Millet (millet-i Rûm, "Roman Nation"). Although a separate Serbian millet (Sırp Milleti) was not officially recognized during Ottoman rule, the Serbian Church was the legally confirmed representative organization of the Serbs in the Ottoman Empire.[32]
The history of Serbia covers the historical development of Serbia and of its predecessor states, from the Early Stone Age to the present state, as well as that of the Serbian people and of the areas they ruled historically. Serbian habitation and rule has varied much through the ages, and as a result the history of Serbia is similarly elastic in what it includes.
The Treaty of Karlowitz, concluding the Great Turkish War of 1683–1697, in which the Ottoman Empire was defeated by the Holy League at the Battle of Zenta, was signed in Karlowitz, in the Military Frontier of the Habsburg Monarchy, on 26 January 1699. Also known as "The Austrian treaty that saved Europe", it marks the end of Ottoman control in much of Central Europe, with their first major territorial losses in Europe, beginning the reversal of four centuries of expansion (1299–1683). The treaty established the Habsburg monarchy as the dominant power of the region.
The First Serbian Uprising was an uprising of Serbs in Orašac against the Ottoman Empire from 14 February 1804, to 7 October 1813. The uprising began as a local revolt against the Dahije, who had seized power in a coup d'état. It later evolved into a war for independence, known as the Serbian Revolution, after more than three centuries of Ottoman Empire rule and brief Austrian occupations.
Miloš Obrenović born Miloš Teodorović, also known as Miloš the Great was the Prince of Serbia twice, from 1815 to 1839, and from 1858 to 1860. He was an eminent figure of the First Serbian uprising, the leader of the Second Serbian uprising, and the founder of the house of Obrenović. Under his rule, Serbia became an autonomous principality within the Ottoman Empire. Prince Miloš was an autocrat, consistently refusing to decentralize power, which gave rise to a strong internal opposition. Despite his humble background, he eventually became the most affluent man in Serbia and one of the wealthiest in the Balkans, possessing estates in Vienna, Serbia and Wallachia. During his rule, Miloš bought a certain number of estates and ships from the Ottomans and was also a prominent trader.
Mačva is a geographical and historical region in the northwest of Central Serbia, on a fertile plain between the Sava and Drina rivers. The chief town is Šabac. The modern Mačva District of Serbia is named after the region, although the region of Mačva includes only the northern part of this district. A small northern part of Mačva region is in the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, in the Syrmia District.
The Austro-Turkish War (1716–1718) was fought between Habsburg monarchy and the Ottoman Empire. The 1699 Treaty of Karlowitz was not an acceptable permanent agreement for the Ottoman Empire. Twelve years after Karlowitz, it began the long-term prospect of taking revenge for its defeat at the Battle of Vienna in 1683. First, the army of Turkish Grand Vizier Baltacı Mehmet defeated Peter the Great's Russian Army in the Russo-Turkish War (1710–1711). Then, during the Ottoman–Venetian War (1714–1718), Ottoman Grand Vizier Damat Ali reconquered the Morea from the Venetians. As the guarantor of the Treaty of Karlowitz, the Austrians threatened the Ottoman Empire, which caused it to declare war in April 1716.
The Second Serbian Uprising was the second phase of the Serbian Revolution against the Ottoman Empire, which erupted shortly after the re-annexation of the country to the Ottoman Empire in 1813. The occupation was enforced following the defeat of the First Serbian Uprising (1804–1813), during which Serbia existed as a de facto independent state for over a decade. The second revolution ultimately resulted in Serbian semi-independence from the Ottoman Empire. The Principality of Serbia was established, governed by its own parliament, constitution and royal dynasty. De jure independence, however, was attained in 1878, following the decisions of the Congress of Berlin.
The Principality of Serbia was an autonomous, later sovereign state in the Balkans that came into existence as a result of the Serbian Revolution, which lasted between 1804 and 1817. Its creation was negotiated first through an unwritten agreement between Miloš Obrenović, leader of the Second Serbian Uprising, and Ottoman official Marashli Pasha. It was followed by the series of legal documents published by the Sublime Porte in 1828, 1829 and finally, 1830—the Hatt-i Sharif. Its de facto independence ensued in 1867, following the evacuation of the remaining Ottoman troops from the Belgrade Fortress and the country; its independence was recognized internationally in 1878 by the Treaty of Berlin. In 1882 the country was elevated to the status of kingdom.
The History of the Serbs spans from the Early Middle Ages to present. Serbs, a South Slavic people, traditionally live mainly in Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and North Macedonia. A Serbian diaspora dispersed people of Serb descent to Western Europe, North America and Australia.
The Sanjak of Smederevo, also known in historiography as the Pashalik of Belgrade, was an Ottoman administrative unit (sanjak) centered on Smederevo, that existed between the 15th and the outset of the 19th centuries. It was located in the territory of present-day Central Serbia.
Moravian Serbia, the Principality of Moravian Serbia or the Realm of Prince Lazar was the largest and most powerful Serbian principality to emerge from the ruins of the Serbian Empire (1371). Moravian Serbia was named after Morava, the main river of the region. The independent principality in the region of Morava was established in 1371, and attained its largest extent in 1379 through the military and political activities of its first ruler, prince Lazar Hrebeljanović. In 1402 it was raised to the Serbian Despotate, which would exist until 1459.
The Kingdom of Serbia was a province (crownland) of the Habsburg monarchy from 1718 to 1739. It was formed from the territories to the south of the rivers Sava and Danube, corresponding to the Sanjak of Smederevo, conquered by the Habsburgs from the Ottoman Empire in 1717. It was abolished and returned to the Ottoman Empire in 1739.
The Austro-Turkish War, also known as the Habsburg–Ottoman War, was fought from 1788 to 1791, between the Habsburg monarchy and the Ottoman Empire. During the conflict, Habsburg armies succeeded in taking Belgrade (1789) and liberating much of central Serbia, also capturing several forts in the Pounje region of the Ottoman Bosnia. Much of those gains were lost in the later stages of the war, that ended by the Treaty of Sistova (1791), with minor territorial changes in favor of the Habsburg side. The war was fought concomitantly with the Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792).
The Serbian Revolution was a national uprising and constitutional change in Serbia that took place between 1804 and 1835, during which this territory evolved from an Ottoman province into a rebel territory, a constitutional monarchy, and modern Serbia.
Koča's Frontier refers to the territory liberated by Serbian rebels in the Sanjak of Smederevo, during the Austro-Turkish War of 1788–1791. Rebellion was planed already in 1787, since it was anticipated that the Habsburg Monarchy will enter into war against the Ottomans. The Habsburg-organized Serbian Free Corps, among whom Koča Anđelković was a prominent captain, initially captured and held various central parts of Ottoman Serbia during 1788 and 1789. After the arrival of regular Habsburg armies, who captured Belgrade from the Ottomans on 8 October (1789), the liberated Serbian territory was much expanded and became a Habsburg protectorate under military administration, called Serbia. By the Treaty of Sistova (1791), Habsburg forces had to retreat, and the entire liberated territory was returned to the Ottomans. Such outcome also ended Serbian hopes for liberation through alliance with Habsburgs.
Habsburg-occupied Serbia refers to the period between 1686 and 1699 of the Great Turkish War, during which various regions of present-day Serbia were occupied by the Habsburg monarchy. In those regions, Habsburg authorities have established various forms of provisional military administration, including the newly organized Serbian Militia. By the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699, some of those regions remained under the permanent Habsburg rule, while others were returned to the Ottoman Empire.
Early modern history of Serbia refers to the history of Serbia during the early modern period, from the Ottoman conquest in the second half of 15th century up to the beginning of the Serbian Revolution in 1804. The era includes periods of Ottoman and Habsburg rule in various parts of Serbia. During that time, several Habsburg–Ottoman wars were fought on the territory of Serbia.
Ottoman Serbs were ethnic Serbs who lived in the Ottoman Empire (1453–1922). Ottoman Serbs, who were Serbian Orthodox Christian, belonged to the Rum Millet. Although a separate Serbian millet was not officially recognized during Ottoman rule, the Serbian Church was the legally confirmed representative organization of the Serbs in the Ottoman Empire.
Serbian Patriarchate of Peć, or simply Peć Patriarchate, was an autocephalous Eastern Orthodox Patriarchate that existed from 1346 to 1463, and then again from 1557 to 1766 with its seat in the Patriarchal Monastery of Peć.
↑ Krkljuš, Ljubomirka, On Sava Tekelija's programme for the renewal of the Serbian state , Zbornik Matice srpske za istoriju 2010, iss. 81, pp. 7–22, DocumentArchived 2012-03-17 at the Wayback Machine
Katić, Tatjana; Vučetić, Biljana (2017). "In the time of the Ottoman Empire (1455-1912)"(PDF). Artistic Heritage of the Serbian People in Kosovo and Metohija: History, Identity, Vulnerability, Protection. Belgrade: Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts. pp.365–377.
Šuletić, Nebojša (2017). "Under Ottoman Rule: Until the End of the 18th Century". Artistic Heritage of the Serbian People in Kosovo and Metohija: History, Identity, Vulnerability, Protection. Belgrade: Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts. pp.31–39.
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