Vachellia farnesiana

Last updated

Vachellia farnesiana
Acaciafarnesiana1web.jpg
Status TNC G5.svg
Secure  (NatureServe)
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Fabales
Family: Fabaceae
Subfamily: Caesalpinioideae
Clade: Mimosoid clade
Genus: Vachellia
Species:
V. farnesiana
Binomial name
Vachellia farnesiana
Varieties (all currently disputed)
  • Vachellia farnesiana var. farnesiana(L.) Willd.
  • Vachellia farnesiana var. guanacastensisH.D.Clarke et al. [2] [3]
  • Vachellia farnesiana var. pinetorum(F.J. Herm.) Seigler & Ebinger [4]
Acacia-farnesiana-range-map.png
Synonyms
  • Acacia farnesiana var. farnesiana(L.) Wight et Arn.
  • Acacia acicularisHumb. & Bonpl. ex. Willd. [5]
  • Acacia densiflora(Small) Cory
  • Acacia farnesiana(L.) Willd.
  • Acacia farnesiana var. lenticellata(F.Muell.) Bailey
  • Acacia farnesiana subsp. pinetorum(F.J.Herm.) Ebinger, Seigler & H.D.Clarke [6]
  • Acacia feroxM.Martens & Galeotti [7]
  • Acacia indica(Poir.) Desv.
  • Acacia lenticellataF. Muell. [8]
  • Acacia minuta(M.E. Jones) R.M. Beauch.
  • Acacia minuta subsp. minuta(M.E.Jones) R.M. Beauch.
  • Acacia minuta subsp. densiflora(Alexander ex Small) R.M.Beauch. [9]
  • Acacia pedunculataWilld.
  • Acacia pinetorumF.J.Herm. [4]
  • Acacia smalliiIsely [10]
  • Farnesia odoraGasp.
  • Farnesiana odoraGasp.
  • Mimosa acicularisPoir.
  • Mimosa farnesianaL. [1]
  • Mimosa indicaPoir.
  • Mimosa suaveolensSalisb.
  • Pithecellobium acuminatumM.E. Jones
  • Pithecellobium minutumM.E. Jones
  • Popanax farnesiana(L.) Raf.
  • Poponax farnesiana(L.) Raf.
  • Vachellia densifloraSmall [11]

Vachellia farnesiana, also known as Acacia farnesiana, and previously Mimosa farnesiana, commonly known as sweet acacia, [12] huisache, [13] casha tree, or needle bush, is a species of shrub or small tree in the legume family, Fabaceae. Its flowers are used in the perfume industry.

Contents

Description

The plant is deciduous over part of its range, [14] but evergreen in most locales. [15] Growing from multiple trunks, it reaches a height of 4.6–9.1 metres (15–30 feet). [13] The bark is whitish gray. [16] The base of each leaf is accompanied by a pair of thorns on the branch. [17] The dark brown fruit is a seed pod. [16]

Taxonomy

Taxonomic history

It was first described by Europeans under the name Acacia Indica Farnesiana in 1625 by Tobias Aldini from plants grown in Rome in the Farnese Gardens from seed collected in Santo Domingo, in what is now the Dominican Republic, which germinated in 1611. Aldini included an illustration of the plant, which he contrasted with an illustration of the first known Acacia; Acacia nilotica. This first (European) illustration of the plant was later designated as the (lecto-)type. [18] [19] In 1753, Carl Linnaeus used Aldini's work as basis for his taxon Mimosa farnesiana. In 1806 Carl Ludwig Willdenow moved this taxon to the genus Acacia. [1]

Partly due to its wide distributional range, the taxon has attracted many synonyms. Especially in the United States, the taxonomy has been confused.

In 1809, Willdenow described Acacia acicularis from Central America collected and named during Humboldt and Bonpland's scientific expedition to the Americas. [5] Acacia ferox was described in 1843 in Belgium from collections in Mexico. [7] Acacia lenticellata was described in 1859 for the plants found growing throughout Australia. [8]

In the Prodromus Florae Peninsulae Indiae Orientalis of 1834, Wight & Arnott, attempted to split the burgeoning genus Acacia by moving a number of the Acacia species growing in India to the new genus Vachellia.

This was not widely followed, nonetheless in 1933, Small verified Alexander's name Vachellia densiflora for plants growing in Louisiana, and awarded V. peninsularis and V. insularis to different populations of the plants growing in Florida. [4]

In 1936, Cory moved Vachellia densiflora to Acacia densiflora, but as this name had already been used for another taxon, and was therefore invalidated sensu Cory, in 1969, this taxon was renamed A. smallii by Isely. In 1948, F. J. Herm. synonymised Vachellia peninsularis and V. insularis under Acacia pinetorum. [4] [12]

In 1933, M. E. Jones named plants he collected in Mexico Pithecellobium minutum. This taxon was moved to Acacia minuta by R. Mitchel Beauchamp in 1980. Beauchamp also subsumed A. smallii under A. minuta subsp. densiflora, although this was not widely followed.

Acacia smallii was used in the U.S. for the 'native' A. farnesiana growing in the drylands west of Louisiana, but at the same time, the taxon A. farnesiana was recognised in the U.S. for purportedly imported non-native plants originally cultivated in the Southeastern U.S. as ornamentals and later thought naturalised there. Additionally, in Florida, A. pinetorum was recognised as a rare endemic native. [12]

A paper in 1989 by H. D. Clarke, D. S. Seigler and J. E. Ebinger finally cleared up some of this confusion, synonymising Acacia smallii and a number of other taxa under the nominate form of A. farnesiana, under which they also included all of the plants growing outside of the Americas. In the same paper, they recognised A. farnesiana var. guanacastensis from herbarium collections made by D. H. Janzen in 1976 in Guanacaste, Costa Rica. [2] [3] This taxon was later elevated to species status as A. guanacastensis by the same three in 2000 [20] and later moved to Vachellia guanacastensis by Seigler and Ebinger in 2006. [21]

Acacia pinetorum was subsumed under A. farnesiana as A. farnesiana subsp. pinetorum in 2002 by Clarke, Seigler and Ebinger (rendering the nominate form A. farnesiana subsp. farnesiana). [6] Seigler and Ebinger later reclassified this as Vachellia farnesiana var. pinetorum in 2005. [4]

Infraspecific diversity

Acacia farnesiana var. guanacastensis is primarily distinguished by larger leaflets. It remains controversial; most taxonomic authorities in Mexico and Central America recognise this taxon as a full species under either A. guanacastensis or Vachellia guanacastensis, the Árboles nativos e introduciados de El Salvador of 2009 subsumed it under Acacia farnesiana. It is recognised as present in Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Nicaragua, and the southern Gulf and southwestern regions of Mexico by the Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (2018), but whether the taxon as recognised by the different authorities replaces Acacia farnesiana in Central America (but not the Caribbean or South America) or exists sympatrically remains unclear. This has implications for the classification of the extra-American distribution of A. farnesiana as the populations growing in Australia and the Philippines have recently (2017) been shown to derive from ancient Central American origins.

Acacia pinetorum, the pineland acacia or pineland wattle, [12] is also disputed. The International Legume Database and Information Service continues to recognise A. pinetorum, [4] while the U.S. Department of Agriculture recognises V. farnesiana var. pinetorum. [12]

In France, two old cultivars have been developed for the perfume industry. These were also recognised as varieties at one time.

Etymology

The specific name farnesiana honors Odoardo Farnese (1573–1626) of the notable Italian Farnese family, which after 1550, under the patronage of Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, maintained some of the first private European botanical gardens in Rome, the Farnese Gardens, in the 16th and 17th centuries.

This acacia was first described from these gardens, imported to Italy from Santo Domingo, in what is now the Dominican Republic. [22] [23] [24] [18]

Analysis of essences of the floral extract from this plant, long used in perfumery, resulted in the name for the sesquiterpene biosynthetic chemical farnesol, found as a basic sterol precursor in plants, and cholesterol precursor in animals. [23] [ failed verification ]

The name huisache of Mexico and Texas is derived from Nahuatl and means "many thorns". [13] The Australian name needle bush came about because of the numerous thorns distributed along its branches.

Distribution and habitat

Of all Acacia species, this plant has the greatest distribution. It was first described by Europeans in 1625 by Tobias Aldini from plants grown from seed collected in Santo Domingo, in what is now the Dominican Republic. The native range of V. farnesiana has been or is sometimes disputed. While the point of origin is thought to be the Caribbean, the Guianas, Mexico, and/or Central America, the species has a pantropical distribution incorporating most of the Americas (from the Southern U.S. to Chile, excluding the Amazon), most of Australia, much of Africa, southern Europe, and southern Asia. In the Caribbean, it is present from the Bahamas and Cuba south to Trinidad, Curaçao, and Aruba, where in it is believed to be native to Hispaniola and certainly Cuba, but possibly native or naturalised elsewhere. In the U.S., it is thought to be native to southern Texas, southern New Mexico, southern Arizona, and southern California, but perhaps naturalized in southern Louisiana, coastal Mississippi, coastal Alabama, coastal Georgia, and southern Florida. Whether the extra-American distribution is natural (the seed pods have probably floated across the Pacific) or anthropogenic remains disputed. It was introduced to Europe, the Middle East, India, Africa, and recently Gran Canaria and Hawaii. It has long been thought to be native to the Philippines and Australia, having spread there by natural means, because plants were collected there before colonisation in 1788, it was distributed throughout the country, indigenous knowledge on the plant is extensive, and 2017 DNA investigations show this as most likely. In Australia, however, the government now considers it as non-native or even invasive. [12] [18] [19] [2] [25] [26] [27]

The plant prefers full sunlight in a tropical climate. [16]

Ecology

Deer and peccaries eat its fruit, various birds use the plant for nesting and cover, and insects eat the nectar from its flowers. If disturbed, it readily resprouts. [17] It thrives in dry, saline, or sodic soils.

It is considered a serious pest plant in parts of Australia, as it interferes with cattle-ranching operations. It readily spreads in commercial grazing pastures, especially along creeks, which might affect ease of transport for farmers, complicates muster, and can damage farm machinery. The seeds are dispersed by cattle after they eat the nutritious pods, and growth is promoted by overgrazing. Numerous herbicides are used to control it on ranches; chemical control is the only way to kill it. [27] [28] [29] [30] The plant has been spread to many new locations as a result of human activity, and it is considered a serious weed in Fiji, where locals call it Ellington's curse.

Uses

Perfume

The flowers are processed through distillation to produce a perfume called cassie, which has been described as "delicious". [11] [31] It is widely used in the perfume industry in Europe. Flowers of the plant provide the perfume essence from which the biologically important sesquiterpenoid farnesol is named. [31]

Scented ointments from cassie are made in India. [31]

Gum

It exudes a gum, which is sometimes collected. [11]

Tanning Leather

The bark is used for its tannin content. [25] [31] The concentration of tannin in the seed pods is about 23%. [31] Highly tannic barks are common in general to acacias. Extracts of many are used in medicine for this reason.

Food

The plant's young leaves, flowers, and seed pods are edible raw or cooked. [16]

Fodder and forage

The foliage is a significant source of forage in much of its range, with a protein content around 18%. [31] The tree makes good forage for bees. [31] The seed pods are readily eaten by livestock. [32]

Ornamental

This drought-tolerant species is often used in xeriscaping in Texas. [17]

Dyes and inks

A black pigment is extracted from the bark and fruit. [31]

Traditional medicine

In Brazil, some people use the seeds of V. farnesiana to kill rabid dogs. [25] V. farnesiana has been used in Colombia to treat malaria, and in one in vitro study, an ethanol extract from the leaves showed some activity against the malarial pathogen Plasmodium falciparum with an IC50 value of 1 to 2  microgram/millilitre (as did almost everything tested), though it showed no activity in animal models or a ferriprotoporphyrin biomineralization inhibition test. [33] In the Philippines the leaves are traditionally rubbed on the skin to treat skin diseases in livestock. [34] In Malaysia, an infusion of the plant's flowers and leaves is mixed with turmeric for post-partum treatment. [35]

Related Research Articles

<i>Acacia sensu lato</i> Genus of legumes

Acacia s.l., known commonly as mimosa, acacia, thorntree or wattle, is a polyphyletic genus of shrubs and trees belonging to the subfamily Mimosoideae of the family Fabaceae. It was described by the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus in 1773 based on the African species Acacia nilotica. Many non-Australian species tend to be thorny, whereas the majority of Australian acacias are not. All species are pod-bearing, with sap and leaves often bearing large amounts of tannins and condensed tannins that historically found use as pharmaceuticals and preservatives.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mimosoideae</span> Subfamily of legumes

The Mimosoideae are a traditional subfamily of trees, herbs, lianas, and shrubs in the pea family (Fabaceae) that mostly grow in tropical and subtropical climates. They are typically characterized by having radially symmetric flowers, with petals that are twice divided (valvate) in bud and with numerous showy, prominent stamens.

<i>Acacia</i> Genus of plants

Acacia, commonly known as wattles or acacias, is a genus of about 1,084 species of shrubs and trees in the subfamily Mimosoideae of the pea family Fabaceae. Initially, it comprised a group of plant species native to Africa, South America, and Australasia, but is now reserved for species mainly from Australia, with others from New Guinea, Southeast Asia, and the Indian Ocean. The genus name is Neo-Latin, borrowed from the Greek ἀκακία, a term used in antiquity to describe a preparation extracted from Vachellia nilotica, the original type species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Farnesol</span> Chemical compound

Farnesol is a natural 15-carbon organic compound which is an acyclic sesquiterpene alcohol. Under standard conditions, it is a colorless liquid. It is hydrophobic, and thus insoluble in water, but miscible with oils.

<i>Vachellia tortilis</i> Species of plant

Vachellia tortilis, widely known as Acacia tortilis but now attributed to the genus Vachellia, is the umbrella thorn acacia, also known as umbrella thorn and Israeli babool, a medium to large canopied tree native to most of Africa, primarily to the savanna and Sahel of Africa, but also occurring in the Middle East.

<i>Senegalia rugata</i> Species of plant in the Fabaceae family

Senegalia rugata is a spiny climbing shrub native to China and tropical Asia, common in the warm plains of central and south India. It is renowned as a raw material for shampoo, and the leaves and young shoots are often eaten. Archaeobotanical evidence shows its use for hair care in the pre-Harrapan levels of Banawali, some 4500–4300 years ago.

<i>Vachellia caven</i> Species of plant

Vachellia caven is an ornamental tree in the family Fabaceae. Vachellia caven is native to Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Paraguay, Uruguay and Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil. It grows four to five metres tall and bears very stiff and sharp white thorns up to 2 cm in length. It blooms in spring, with bright yellow flower clusters 1–2 cm (0.39–0.79 in) in diameter.

<i>Vachellia nilotica</i> Species of flowering plant in the bean family Fabaceae

Vachellia nilotica, more commonly known as Acacia nilotica, and by the vernacular names of gum arabic tree, babul, thorn mimosa, Egyptian acacia or thorny acacia, is a flowering tree in the family Fabaceae. It is native to Africa, the Middle East and the Indian subcontinent. It is also considered a 'weed of national significance' and an invasive species of concern in Australia, as well as a noxious weed by the federal government of the United States.

<i>Vachellia constricta</i> Species of legume

Vachellia constricta, also known commonly as the whitethorn acacia, is a shrub native to Mexico and the Southwestern United States.

<i>Vachellia aroma</i> Species of legume

Vachellia aroma is a small, perennial, thorny tree native to Peru, Chile, Argentina and Paraguay. Some common names for it are aromita, aromo negro, espinillo and tusca. It is not listed as being a threatened species. Although some sources say that Vachellia macracantha is synonymous with Vachellia aroma, genetic analysis of the two species has shown that they are different, but that they are closely related.

<i>Vachellia karroo</i> Species of legume

Vachellia karroo, commonly known as the sweet thorn, common acacia, Karoo thorn, Cape gum or cockspur thorn, is a species of Vachellia, in the Mimosa sub-family (Mimosoideae) of the Fabaceae or pea family, which is native to southern Africa from southern Angola east to Mozambique, and south to South Africa.

<i>Vachellia sieberiana</i> Species of legume

Vachellia sieberiana, until recently known as Acacia sieberiana and commonly known as the paperbark thorn or paperbark acacia, is a tree native to southern Africa and introduced into Pakistan. It is used in many areas for various purposes. The tree varies from 3 to 25 m in height, with a trunk diameter of 0.6 to 1.8 m. It is not listed as being a threatened species.

<i>Vachellia caven <span style="font-style:normal;">var.</span> caven</i> Variety of legume

Vachellia caven var. caven is a perennial tree native to South America.

<i>Mariosousa</i> Genus of legumes

Mariosousa is a genus of 13 species of flowering plants in the family Fabaceae. It belongs to the mimosoid clade of the subfamily Caesalpinioideae. Members of this genus were formerly considered to belong to the genus Acacia.

<i>Senegalia</i> Genus of plants in the Fabaceae family, almost worldwide

Senegalia is a genus of flowering plants in the family Fabaceae. It belongs to the Mimosoid clade. Until 2005, its species were considered members of Acacia. The genus was considered polyphyletic and required further division, with the genera Parasenegalia and Pseudosenegalia accepted soon after.

<i>Vachellia</i> Genus of legumes

Vachellia is a genus of flowering plants in the legume family, Fabaceae, commonly known as thorn trees or acacias. It belongs to the subfamily Mimosoideae. Its species were considered members of genus Acacia until 2009. Vachellia can be distinguished from other acacias by its capitate inflorescences and spinescent stipules. Before discovery of the New World, Europeans in the Mediterranean region were familiar with several species of Vachellia, which they knew as sources of medicine, and had names for them that they inherited from the Greeks and Romans.

Senegalia thailandica is a species of climbing or sprawling shrub in the family Fabaceae.

Pseudosenegalia is a small genus of flowering plants in the legume family, Fabaceae. It includes two species of trees or shrubs endemic to Bolivia. It belongs to subfamily Mimosoideae.

Parasenegalia is a small genus of flowering plants in the legume family, Fabaceae. It belongs to the subfamily Mimosoideae. It is found in tropical areas of the Caribbean, Central America, and South America.

Senegalia megaladena is a spiny climber, shrub or tree, native to Jawa, and from mainland Southeast Asia to China and India. It is eaten as a vegetable and used as a fish poison. It is named after its distinctive large gland on the petioles.

References

  1. 1 2 3 IPNI Plant Name Details. Vol. 4. The International Plant Names Index (IPNI). 23 April 2015. Retrieved 13 July 2018.
  2. 1 2 3 Clarke, H.D., Seigler, D.S., Ebinger, J.E. 1989; 'Acacia farnesiana (Fabaceae: Mimosoideae) and Related Species from Mexico, the Southwestern U.S., and the Caribbean' Systematic Botany 14 549-564
  3. 1 2 IPNI Plant Name Details. Vol. 14. The International Plant Names Index (IPNI). 23 April 2015. Retrieved 14 July 2018.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Acacia pinetorum F.J.Herm. — The Plant List". The Plant List (Version 1.1). Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Missouri Botanical Garden. September 2013. Retrieved 14 July 2018.
  5. 1 2 IPNI Plant Name Details. The International Plant Names Index (IPNI). 23 April 2015. Retrieved 13 July 2018.
  6. 1 2 IPNI Plant Name Details. Vol. 47. The International Plant Names Index (IPNI). 23 April 2015. Retrieved 14 July 2018. note the Plant List & Tropicos database citation records incomplete authorship
  7. 1 2 IPNI Plant Name Details. The International Plant Names Index (IPNI). 23 April 2015. Retrieved 13 July 2018.
  8. 1 2 "IPNI Plant Name Details". The International Plant Names Index (IPNI). 23 April 2015. Retrieved 14 July 2018.
  9. ↑ "Acacia minuta ssp. densiflora (Alexander ex Small) Beauchamp". ITIS Reports. Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 2009-06-30.
  10. ↑ "Acacia smallii". LegumeWeb. International Legume Database & Information Service. Retrieved 2008-05-15.
  11. 1 2 3 Sturtevant's notes on edible plants. Albany : J.B. Lyon. 1919. p. 19.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 USDA, NRCS (n.d.). "Vachellia farnesiana". The PLANTS Database (plants.usda.gov). Greensboro, North Carolina: National Plant Data Team. Retrieved 25 March 2016.
  13. 1 2 3 "Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center - The University of Texas at Austin". www.wildflower.org. Retrieved 2016-06-28.
  14. ↑ PDF Ursula K. Schuch and Margaret Norem, Growth of Legume Tree Species Growing in the Southwestern United States, University of Arizona.
  15. ↑ "Discover Life - Fabaceae: Acacia farnesiana (L. ) Willd. - Cassie Flower, Vachellia farnesiana, Poponax farnesiana, Mimosa farnesiana, Ellington Curse, Klu, Sweet Acacia, Mimosa Bush, Huisache". Pick5.pick.uga.edu. Archived from the original on 2012-02-24. Retrieved 2012-04-19.
  16. 1 2 3 4 U.S. Department of the Army (2019). The Official U.S. Army Illustrated Guide to Edible Wild Plants. Guilford, CT: Lyons Press. p. 8. ISBN   978-1-4930-4039-1. OCLC   1043567121.
  17. 1 2 3 "Sweet Acacia (Acacia farnesiana)". Native Plants of South Texas. Texas AgriLife Research and Extension. Retrieved 2009-06-30.
  18. 1 2 3 Bell, Karen L.; Rangan, Haripriya; Fernandes, Manuel M.; Kull, Christian A.; Murphy, Daniel J. (12 April 2017). "Chance long-distance or human-mediated dispersal? How Acacia s.l. farnesiana attained its pan-tropical distribution". Royal Society Open Science. 4 (4): 170105. Bibcode:2017RSOS....470105B. doi:10.1098/rsos.170105. PMC   5414274 . PMID   28484637.
  19. 1 2 Little, Elbert Luther; Wadsworth, Frank H.; Marrero, José (1977). Árboles comunes de Puerto Rico y las Islas Vírgenes (PDF) (in Spanish). San Juan: La Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico. pp. 145–147. ISBN   978-0847703838.
  20. ↑ IPNI Plant Name Details. Vol. 25. The International Plant Names Index (IPNI). 23 April 2015. Retrieved 14 July 2018.
  21. ↑ IPNI Plant Name Details. Vol. 87. The International Plant Names Index (IPNI). 23 April 2015. Retrieved 14 July 2018.
  22. ↑ "Etymology of farnesol, accessed August 27, 2009". Dictionary.reference.com. Retrieved 2012-04-19.
  23. 1 2 Fluckiger, F. A. (March 1885). "The Essential Oil Industry in Grasse" (PDF). American Journal of Pharmacy. 57 (3). Retrieved 2012-04-19.
  24. ↑ "Location of the Farnese family gardens, now known only as a remnant". Gardenvisit.com. Retrieved 2012-04-19.
  25. 1 2 3 "Purdue University". Hort.purdue.edu. 1997-12-16. Retrieved 2012-04-19.
  26. ↑ "The Euro+Med PlantBase Project" . Retrieved 7 July 2018.
  27. 1 2 "Vachellia farnesiana" . Retrieved 7 July 2018.
  28. ↑ "Mimosa bush - briar bush". Northwestweeds.nsw.gov.au. Archived from the original on 2008-01-28. Retrieved 2008-04-09.
  29. ↑ "Mimosa bush (Vachellia farnesiana) - NSW WeedWise" . Retrieved 7 July 2018.
  30. ↑ "Acacia farnesiana - Alien Plants of Hawaii, UH Botany" . Retrieved 7 July 2018.
  31. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Eshel, Amram. "Sweet Acacia, Needle bush Medicinal,introduce,allergenic". Wildflowers of Israel. israelbiz- בניית אתרים. Retrieved 11 July 2018.
  32. ↑ Little, Elbert L. (1980). The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Trees: Eastern Region. New York: Knopf. p. 514. ISBN   0-394-50760-6.
  33. ↑ Garavito, G.; Rincón, J.; Arteaga, L.; Hata, Y.; Bourdy, G.; Gimenez, A.; Pinzón, R.; Deharo, E. (2006). "Antimalarial activity of some Colombian medicinal plants". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 107 (3): 460–462. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2006.03.033. PMID   16713157.
  34. ↑ Santiago-Flores, M. Leila. "Philippine Herbs Used in Small Animal Practice". Stuartxchange.org. Retrieved 2012-04-19.
  35. ↑ Samy, Joseph; Manickam, Sugumaran (2005). Herbs of Malaysia. Times Editions. p. 29. ISBN   978-9833001798.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.