Verbascum thapsus

Last updated

Verbascum thapsus
Starr 040723-0030 Verbascum thapsus.jpg
Second-year plant starting to flower, with a dead stem of the previous year, behind left
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Lamiales
Family: Scrophulariaceae
Genus: Verbascum
Species:
V. thapsus
Binomial name
Verbascum thapsus

Verbascum thapsus, the great mullein, greater mullein or common mullein, is a species of mullein native to Europe, northern Africa, and Asia, and introduced in the Americas and Australia. [1]

Contents

It is a hairy biennial plant that can grow to 2 m tall or more. Its small, yellow flowers are densely grouped on a tall stem, which grows from a large rosette of leaves. It grows in a wide variety of habitats, but prefers well-lit, disturbed soils, where it can appear soon after the ground receives light, from long-lived seeds that persist in the soil seed bank. It is a common weedy plant that spreads by prolifically producing seeds, and has become invasive in temperate world regions. [1] It is a minor problem for most agricultural crops, since it is not a competitive species, being intolerant of shade from other plants and unable to survive tilling. It also hosts many insects, some of which can be harmful to other plants. Although individuals are easy to remove by hand, populations are difficult to eliminate permanently.

Although commonly used in traditional medicine, no approved drugs are made from this plant. [2] It has been used to make dyes and torches. [1]

Description

A stemless rosette in Hawaii Starr 040723-0260 Verbascum thapsus.jpg
A stemless rosette in Hawaii

V. thapsus is a dicotyledonous plant that produces a rosette of leaves in its first year of growth. [3] [4] The leaves are large, up to 50 cm long. The second-year plants normally produce a single unbranched stem, usually 1–2 m tall. In the eastern part of its range in China, it is, however, only reported to grow up to 1.5 m tall. [5] The tall, pole-like stems end in a dense spike of flowers [3] that can occupy up to half the stem length. All parts of the plants are covered with star-shaped trichomes. [5] [6] This cover is particularly thick on the leaves, giving them a silvery appearance. The species' chromosome number is 2n = 36. [7]

On flowering plants, the leaves are alternately arranged up the stem. They are thick and decurrent, with much variation in leaf shape between the upper and lower leaves on the stem, ranging from oblong to oblanceolate, and reaching sizes up to 50 cm long and 14 cm across (19 inches long and 5 inches wide). [8] [9] They become smaller higher up the stem, [3] [4] and less strongly decurrent down the stem. [3] The flowering stem is solid and 2–2.5 cm (nearly an inch) across, and occasionally branched just below the inflorescence, [4] usually following damage. [10] After flowering and seed release, the stem and fruits usually persist in winter, [11] drying into dark brown, stiff structures of densely packed, ovoid-shaped, and dry seed capsules. The dried stems may persist into the following spring or even the next summer. The plant produces a shallow taproot. [9]

A closeup of the flowers Starr 040723-0267 Verbascum thapsus.jpg
A closeup of the flowers

Flowers are pentamerous with (usually) five stamen, a five-lobed calyx tube, and a five-petalled corolla, the latter bright yellow and an 1.5–3 cm (0.59–1.18 in) wide. The flowers are almost sessile, with very short pedicels (2 mm, 0.08 in). The five stamens are of two types, with the three upper stamens being shorter, their filaments covered by yellow or whitish hairs, and having smaller anthers, while the lower two stamens have glabrous filaments and larger anthers. [6] [note 1] The plant produces small, ovoid (6 mm, 0.24 in) capsules that split open by way of two valves, each capsule containing large numbers of minute, brown seeds less than 1 mm (0.04 in) [12] in size, marked with longitudinal ridges. A white-flowered form, V. thapsus f. candicans, is known to occur. [13] Flowering lasts up to three months from early to late summer (June to August in northern Europe), [4] with flowering starting at the bottom of the spike and progressing irregularly upward; each flower opens for part of a day and only a few open at the same time around the stem. [11]

Taxonomy

For the purpose of botanical nomenclature, Verbascum thapsus was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1753 Species Plantarum . The specific epithet thapsus had been first used by Theophrastus (as Θάψος , Thapsos) [14] for an unspecified herb from the Ancient Greek settlement of Thapsos, near modern Syracuse, Sicily, [14] [15] though it is often assimilated to the ancient Tunisian city of Thapsus. [16]

At the time, no type specimen was specified, as the practice only arose later, in the 19th century. When a lectotype (type selected amongst original material) was designated, it was assigned to specimen 242.1 of Linnaeus' herbarium, the only V. thapsus specimen. [note 2] The species had previously been designated as type species for Verbascum . [18] European plants exhibit considerable phenotypical variation, [19] which has led to the plant acquiring many synonyms over the years. [17] [20] Introduced American populations show much less variation. [19]

The taxonomy of Verbascum has not undergone any significant revision since Svanve Mürbeck's monographs in the 1930s, with the exception of the work of Arthur Huber-Morath, who used informal grouping in organizing the genus for the florae of Iran and Turkey to account for many intermediate species. Since Huber-Morath's groups are not taxonomical, Mürbeck's treatment is the most current one available, as no study has yet sought to apply genetic or molecular data extensively to the genus. In Mürbeck's classification, V. thapsus is placed in sect. Bothrospermae subsect. Fasciculata alongside species such as Verbascum nigrum (black or dark mullein), Verbascum lychnitis (white mullein), and Verbascum sinuatum (wavy-leaved mullein). [21] [22] [23] [24] As Verbascum thapsus is the type species of the genus the application of article 22 of the ICNafp gives sect. Verbascum subsect. Verbascum as the correct nomenclature for this placement.

Subspecies and hybrids

Hybrids of Verbascum thapsus [7] [25]
Hybrid nameOther
parent species
Notes
V. × duernsteinense Teyber V. speciosum
V. × godronii Boreau V. pulverulentum
V. × kerneri Fritsch V. phlomoides
V. × lemaitrei Boreau V. virgatum
V. × pterocaulon Franch. V. blattaria
V. × thapsi L. V. lychnitis syn. V. × spurium
W.D.J.Koch, may be a
nomen ambiguum [26]
V. × semialbum Chaub. V. nigrum
none V. pyramidatum

The three usually recognized subspecies are:

In all subspecies but the type, the lower stamens are also hairy. [28] In V. t. crassifolium, the hairiness is less dense and often absent from the upper part of the anthers, while lower leaves are hardly decurrent and have longer petioles. [27] In V. t. giganteum, the hairs are densely white tomentose, and lower leaves are strongly decurrent. V. t. crassifolium also differs from the type in having slightly larger flowers, which measure 15–30 mm wide, whereas in the type, they are 12–20 mm in diameter. [27] Both V. t. giganteum and V. t. crassifolium were originally described as species. [3] Due to its morphological variation, V. thapsus has had a great many subspecies described. A recent revision led its author to maintain V. giganteum but sink V. crassifolium into synonymy. [24]

The plant is also parent to several hybrids (see table). Of these, the most common is V. × semialbum Chaub. (× V. nigrum). [7] All occur in Eurasia, [7] and three, V. × kerneri Fritsch, V. × pterocaulon Franch. and V. × thapsi L. (syn. V. × spurium W.D.J.Koch), have also been reported in North America. [25] [29]

Common names

V. thapsus is known by a variety of names. European reference books call it "great mullein". [30] [31] [32] In North America, "common mullein" is used [33] [34] while western United States residents commonly refer to mullein as "cowboy toilet paper". [35] [36]

In the 19th century, it had well over 40 different common names in English alone. Some of the more whimsical ones included "hig candlewick", "Indian rag weed", "bullicks lungwort", "Adams-rod", "hare's-beard", and "ice-leaf". [37] Vernacular names include innumerable references to the plant's hairiness: "woolly mullein", "velvet mullein", or "blanket mullein", [32] [38] "beggar's blanket", "Moses' blanket", "poor man's blanket", "Our Lady's blanket", or "old man's blanket", [31] [34] [39] and "feltwort", and so on ("flannel" is another common generic name). "Mullein" itself derives from the French word for "soft". [40]

Some names refer to the plant's size and shape: "shepherd's club(s)" or "staff", "Aaron's rod" [41] (a name it shares with a number of other plants with tall, yellow inflorescences), and a plethora of other "X's staff" and "X's rod". [31] [34] [42] The name "velvet dock" or "mullein dock" is also recorded, where "dock" is a British name applied to any broad-leaved plant. [43]

Distribution and habitat

V. thapsus has a wide native range including Europe, northern Africa, and Asia, from the Azores and Canary Islands east to western China, north to the British Isles, Scandinavia, and Siberia, and south to the Himalayas. [5] [44] [45] In northern Europe, it grows from sea level up to 1,850 m altitude, [4] while in China it grows at 1,400–3,200 m altitude. [5]

It has been introduced throughout the temperate world, and is established as a weed in Australia, New Zealand, tropical Asia, La Réunion, North America, Hawaii, Chile, Hispaniola, and Argentina. [45] [46] [47] [48] It has also been reported in Japan. [49]

In the United States, it was imported very early in the 18th [note 3] century and cultivated for its medicinal and piscicide properties. By 1818, it had begun spreading so much that Amos Eaton thought it was a native plant. [note 4] [9] [50] In 1839, it was already reported in Michigan and in 1876, in California. [9] It is now found commonly in all the states. [51] In Canada, it is most common in the Maritime Provinces and southern Quebec, Ontario, and British Columbia, with scattered populations in between. [19] [52]

Great mullein most frequently grows as a colonist of bare and disturbed soil, usually on sandy or chalky ones. [7] It grows best in dry, sandy, or gravelly soils, although it can grow in a variety of habitats, including banksides, meadows, roadsides, forest clearings, and pastures. This ability to grow in a wide range of habitats has been linked to strong phenotype variation rather than adaptation capacities. [53]

Ecology

V. thapsus grows best with little competition. Starr 040723-0074 Verbascum thapsus.jpg
V. thapsus grows best with little competition.

Great mullein is a biennial and generally requires winter dormancy before it can flower. [10] This dormancy is linked to starch degradation activated by low temperatures in the root, and gibberellin application bypasses this requirement. [54] Seeds germinate almost solely in bare soil, at temperatures between 10 and 40 °C. [10] While they can germinate in total darkness if proper conditions are present (tests give a 35% germination rate under ideal conditions), in the wild, they in practice only do so when exposed to light, or very close to the soil surface, which explains the plant's habitat preferences. While it can also grow in areas where some vegetation already exists, growth of the rosettes on bare soil is four to seven times more rapid. [10]

Seeds germinate in spring and summer. Those that germinate in autumn produce plants that overwinter if they are large enough, while rosettes less than 15 cm (6 in) across die in winter. After flowering, the entire plant usually dies at the end of its second year, [10] but some individuals, especially in the northern parts of the range, require a longer growth period and flower in their third year. Under better growing conditions, some individuals flower in the first year. [55] Triennial individuals have been found to produce fewer seeds than biennial and annual ones. While year of flowering and size are linked to the environment, most other characteristics appear to be genetic. [56]

A given flower is open only for a single day, opening before dawn and closing in the afternoon. [19] Flowers are self-fecundating and protogynous (with female parts maturing first), [19] and will self-pollinate if they have not been pollinated by insects during the day. While many insects visit the flowers, only some bees actually accomplish pollination. The flowering period of V. thapsus lasts from June to August in most of its range, extending to September or October in warmer climates. [9] [10] [12] Visitors include halictid bees and hoverflies. [11] The hair on lower stamens may serve to provide footholds for visitors. [19]

The fruit of great mullein contains large numbers of minute seed. Verbascum thapsus fruit kz.jpg
The fruit of great mullein contains large numbers of minute seed.

The seeds maintain their germinative powers for decades, up to 100 years, according to some studies. [57] Because of this, and because the plant is an extremely prolific seed bearer (each plant produces hundreds of capsules, each containing up to 700 seeds, [19] with a total up to 180,000 [9] [10] or 240,000 [12] seeds), it remains in the soil seed bank for extended periods of time, and can sprout from apparently bare ground, [10] or shortly after forest fires long after previous plants have died. [12] Its population pattern typically consists of an ephemeral adult population followed by a long period of dormancy as seeds. [19] Great mullein rarely establishes on new grounds without human intervention because its seeds do not disperse very far. Seed dispersion requires the stem to be moved by wind or animal movement; 75% of the seeds fall within 1 m of the parent plant, and 93% fall within 5 m. [10]

Megachilid bees of the genus Anthidium use the hair (amongst that of various woolly plants) in making their nests. [58] The seeds are generally too small for birds to feed on, [11] although the American goldfinch has been reported to consume them. [59] Other bird species have been reported to consume the leaves (Hawaiian goose) [60] or flowers (palila), [61] or to use the plant as a source when foraging for insects (white-headed woodpecker). [62] Additionally, deer and elk eat the leaves. [63]

Fossil record

Seeds of V. thapsus have been recorded from part of the Cromer Forest Bed series and at West Wittering in Sussex from some parts of the Ipswichian interglacial layers. [64]

Agricultural impacts and control

Because it cannot compete with established plants, great mullein is no longer considered a serious agricultural weed and is easily crowded out in cultivation, [19] except in areas where vegetation is sparse to begin with, such as Californian semidesertic areas of the eastern Sierra Nevada in the USA. In such ecological contexts, it crowds out native herbs and grasses; its tendency to appear after forest fires also disturbs the normal ecological succession. [10] [12] Although not an agricultural threat, its presence can be very difficult to eradicate and is especially problematic in overgrazed pastures. [9] [10] [12] The species is legally listed as a noxious weed in the US state of Colorado (class C) [65] and Hawaii, [66] and the Australian state of Victoria (regionally prohibited in the West Gippsland region, and regionally controlled in several others). [67]

Despite not being an agricultural weed in itself, it hosts a number of insects and diseases, including both pests and beneficial insects. [68] It is also a potential reservoir of the cucumber mosaic virus, Erysiphum cichoraceum (the cucurbit powdery mildew) and Texas root rot. [19] [69] A study found V. thapsus hosts insects from 29 different families. Most of the pests found were western flower thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis), Lygus species such as the tarnished plant bug (L. lineolaris), and various spider mites from the family Tetranychidae. These make the plant a potential reservoir for overwintering pests. [68]

Other insects commonly found on great mullein feed exclusively on Verbascum species in general or V. thapsus in particular. They include mullein thrips ( Haplothrips verbasci), [68] Gymnaetron tetrum (whose larva consume the seeds), and the mullein moth (Cucullia verbasci). [9] Useful insects are also hosted by great mullein, including predatory mites of the genera Galendromus , Typhlodromus , and Amblyseius , the minute pirate bug Orius tristicolor, [68] and the mullein plant bug (Campylomma verbasci). [70] The plant's ability to host both pests and beneficials makes it potentially useful to maintain stable populations of insects used for biological control in other cultures, like Campylomma verbasci and Dicyphus hesperus (Miridae), a predator of whiteflies. [71] [72] A number of pest Lepidoptera species, including the stalk borer (Papaipema nebris) and gray hairstreak (Strymon melinus), also use V. thapsus as a host plant. [73]

Because of ample irritating hair, V. thapsus is resistant to grazing and contact herbicides. Starr 040723-0032 Verbascum thapsus.jpg
Because of ample irritating hair, V. thapsus is resistant to grazing and contact herbicides.

Control of the plant, when desired, is best managed via mechanical means, such as hand pulling and hoeing, preferably followed by sowing of native plants. Animals rarely graze it because of its irritating hairs, and liquid herbicides require surfactants to be effective, as the hair causes water to roll off the plant, much like the lotus effect. Burning is ultimately ineffective, as it only creates new bare areas for seedlings to occupy. [9] [10] [12] G. tetrum and Cucullia verbasci usually have little effect on V. thapsus populations as a whole. [12] Goats and chickens have also been proposed to control mullein. [10] Effective (when used with a surfactant) contact herbicides include glyphosate, [9] [12] triclopyr [9] and sulfurometuron-methyl. [12] Ground herbicides, like tebuthiuron, are also effective, but they result in bare ground – ideal conditions for growing more mullein – and therefore require repeated application to prevent regrowth. [10]

Uses

Phytochemicals

Phytochemicals in V. thapsus flowers and leaves include saponins, polysaccharides, mucilage, flavonoids, tannins, iridoid and lignin glycosides, and essential oils. [2] The plant's leaves, in addition to the seeds, have been reported to contain rotenone, although quantities are unknown. [74]

Traditional medicine

"Verbasci flos": dried flowers of V. thapsus as used in herbal tea Verbasci flos dried.jpg
"Verbasci flos": dried flowers of V. thapsus as used in herbal tea

Although long used in herbal medicine, no drugs are manufactured from its components. [2] Dioscorides first recommended the plant 2000 years ago, considering it useful as a folk medicine for pulmonary diseases. [75] Leaves were smoked to attempt to treat lung ailments, a tradition that in America was rapidly transmitted to Native American peoples. [31] [76] The Zuni people, however, use the plant in poultices of powdered root applied to sores, rashes, and skin infections. An infusion of the root is also used to treat athlete's foot. [77] All preparations meant to be drunk have to be finely filtered to eliminate the irritating hairs. [54]

Oil from the flowers was used against catarrhs, colics, earaches, frostbite, eczema, and other external conditions. [31] Topical application of various V. thapsus-based preparations was recommended for the treatment of warts, [78] boils, carbuncles, hemorrhoids, and chilblains, amongst others. [31] [76] Glycyrrhizin compounds with bactericide effects in vitro were isolated from flowers. [79] The German Commission E describes uses of the plant for respiratory infections. [80] It was also part of the National Formulary in the United States [76] and United Kingdom. [31]

The plant has been used in an attempt to treat colds, croup, sunburn, and other skin irritations. [81]

Other uses

Roman soldiers are said to have dipped the plant stalks in grease for use as torches. Other cultures use the leaves as wicks. [81] Native Americans and American colonists lined their shoes with leaves from the plant to keep out the cold. [81] [31] [76]

Mullein may be cultivated as an ornamental plant. [1] As for many plants, (Pliny the Elder described it in his Naturalis Historia ), [note 5] great mullein was linked to witches, [31] although the relationship remained generally ambiguous, and the plant was also widely held to ward off curses and evil spirits. [31] [54] [75] [76] The seeds contain several compounds (saponins, glycosides, coumarin, rotenone) that are toxic to fish, and have been widely used as piscicide for fishing. [9] [83]

Due to its weedy capacities, the plant, unlike other species of the genus (such as V. phoeniceum ), is not often cultivated. [1]

Notes

  1. They are all hairy in subspecies V. crassifolium and V. giganteum.
  2. The lectotypification is usually attributed to Arthur Huber-Morath (1971) Denkschriften der Schweizerischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft 87:43. Some disagree since Huber-Morath did not specifically cite sheet 242.1, and credit instead L. H. Cramer, in Dassanayake & Fosberg (1981) A Revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon 3:389. [17]
  3. The 1630 number in Mitch may be a typo: the beginning of the 18th century is cited in other sources. [9] [19]
  4. Eaton went so far as to write: "When botanists are so infatuated with wild speculation, as to tell us the mullein was introduced, they give our youngest pupils occasion to sneer at their teachers." [13]
  5. In book 25, Pliny describes "two principal kinds [of verbascum]" thought to be V. thapsus and V. sinuatum. The precise attribution of a third kind is unclear. [82]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scrophulariaceae</span> Figwort family of flowering plants

The Scrophulariaceae are a family of flowering plants, commonly known as the figwort family. The plants are annual and perennial herbs, as well as shrubs. Flowers have bilateral (zygomorphic) or rarely radial (actinomorphic) symmetry. The Scrophulariaceae have a cosmopolitan distribution, with the majority found in temperate areas, including tropical mountains. The family name is based on the name of the included genus Scrophularia L.

<i>Daucus carota</i> Species of flowering plant

Daucus carota, whose common names include wild carrot, European wild carrot, bird's nest, bishop's lace, and Queen Anne's lace, is a flowering plant in the family Apiaceae. It is native to temperate regions of the Old World and was naturalized in the New World.

<i>Verbascum</i> Genus of flowering plants

Verbascum is a genus of over 450 species of flowering plants, common name mullein, in the figwort family Scrophulariaceae. They are native to Europe and Asia, with the highest species diversity in the Mediterranean.

<i>Primula veris</i> Species of flowering plant

Primula veris, the cowslip, common cowslip, or cowslip primrose, is a herbaceous perennial flowering plant in the primrose family Primulaceae. The species is native throughout most of temperate Europe and western Asia, and although absent from more northerly areas including much of northwest Scotland, it reappears in northernmost Sutherland and Orkney and in Scandinavia. This species frequently hybridizes with other Primulas such as the common primrose Primula vulgaris to form false oxlip which is often confused with true oxlip, a much rarer plant.

<i>Antirrhinum majus</i> Species of flowering plant

Antirrhinum majus, the common snapdragon, is a species of flowering plant belonging to the genus Antirrhinum. The plant was placed in the family Plantaginaceae following a revision of its prior classical family, Scrophulariaceae.

<i>Pittosporum crassifolium</i> Species of tree

Pittosporum crassifolium, karo, stiffleaf cheesewood, kaikaro or kihiki is a relatively fast-growing large shrub or small tree with an erect, fastigiate growth habit. It is native to New Zealand.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mullein moth</span> Species of moth

The mullein moth is a noctuid moth with a Palearctic distribution. The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae.

<i>Verbascum blattaria</i> Species of flowering plant

Verbascum blattaria, the moth mullein, is a flowering biennial plant belonging to the figwort family Scrophulariaceae. A native of Eurasia and North Africa, it has naturalized in the United States and most of Canada since its introduction and has become an invasive species there. It has been declared a noxious weed by the state of Colorado.

<i>Verbascum nigrum</i> Species of flowering plant

Verbascum nigrum, the black mullein or dark mullein, is a species of biennial or short-lived perennial herbaceous plant in the mullein genus Verbascum, native to dry open sites in temperate Europe. It grows to 0.5–1.5 m (1.6–4.9 ft).

<i>Verbascum virgatum</i> Species of flowering plant

Verbascum virgatum, commonly known as twiggy mullein and wand mullein, is a plant species in the family Scrophulariaceae.

<i>Verbascum speciosum</i> Species of flowering plant

Verbascum speciosum is a species of flowering plant in the figwort family known by the common name Hungarian mullein or showy mullein. It is native to eastern Europe and western Asia, and it is known in many other regions as an introduced species and roadside weed. It is a biennial herb forming a rosette of large leaves and an erect stem well exceeding one meter in maximum height. The leaves are 30 to 40 centimeters long and have smooth edges and pointed tips. The plant blooms in a large panicle with many branches lined with flowers. Each flower has a corolla measuring 2 to 3 centimeters wide with five yellow petals. There are five stamens coated in long white hairs at the center. The fruit is a capsule up to 7 millimeters in length containing many seeds.

<i>Linaria dalmatica</i> Species of flowering plant

Linaria dalmatica is a herbaceous, short-lived perennial plant native to western Asia and southeastern Europe that has become a weed in other areas. The family this plant now belongs to is the Plantaginaceae Family. Previously, it belonged to the Scrophulariaceae (Figwort) family. Its common names include Balkan toadflax, broadleaf toadflax, and Dalmatian toadflax. Linaria dalmatica has unique yellow flowers with an orange center that draw individuals to purchase them to display in their gardens. The distribution of L. dalmatica to North America can be attributed to use as a fabric dye, folk remedies and as an ornamental plant. However, it is now classified as a weed in both Canada and the U.S.A.

<i>Digitalis thapsi</i> Species of foxglove

Digitalis thapsi, which has been called mullein foxglove in the US, is a flowering plant in the genus Digitalis that is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula, where it occurs in eastern Portugal and central and western Spain. It is of commercial importance as an ornamental plant. Hybrids with D. purpurea have proved successful and are fertile.

<i>Verbascum phoeniceum</i> Species of flowering plant

Verbascum phoeniceum, known as purple mullein, is a species of mullein that is part of the family Scrophulariaceae native to Central Europe, Central Asia and Western China. It is also naturalized in certain regions of the US and Canada. It successfully grows in USDA’s zones 4 to 8. It is a short-lived perennial species, and blooms earlier than other mullein species on average, producing vibrant purple-pink flowers; it can grow up to 1m or more.

Dicyphus hesperus is a species of true bug in the family Miridae. It is a generalist predator of other insects and also feeds on plant tissues. It is native to North America and has been used there in biological control of agricultural pests, especially whitefly on tomatoes.

<i>Verbascum phlomoides</i> Species of plant in the family Scrophulariaceae

Verbascum phlomoides, the orange mullein, woolly mullein, or clasping-leaf mullein, is a plant species in the family Scrophulariaceae native to Europe and Asia Minor. It is a widespread weed in North America. The Royal Horticultural Society considered it to be a good plant to attract pollinators. It is used as a respiratory catarrh and diuretic.

<i>Verbascum sinuatum</i> Species of plant

Verbascum sinuatum, commonly known as the scallop-leaved mullein, the wavyleaf mullein, or Candela regia, is a species of perennial herbaceous plants in the genus Verbascum (mullein), growing in heavy soils in Central Asia and the Mediterranean region. It grows to 1.2–1.5 m (3.9–4.9 ft). The plant has an erect inflorescence stem, and is entirely covered with stellate hairs (trichomes) which are not pleasant to the touch.

<i>Verbascum lychnitis</i> Species of plant

Verbascum lychnitis, the white mullein, is a flowering plant in the figwort family (Scrophulariaceae) native to Asia and Europe. It has naturalized in parts of North America. The species was first formally named by Carl Linnaeus in 1753. Despite its common name, the flowers can be white or yellow.

<i>Verbascum pulverulentum</i> Species of plant in the genus Verbascum

Verbascum pulverulentum, the hoary mullein or broad-leaf mullein, is a species of flowering plant in the family Scrophulariaceae. It is native to central and southern Europe, and has been introduced to Austria, Madeira, and Washington state in the US. It is a specialist on coastal shingle, and so is preadapted to human-influenced habitats such as old quarries and gravel pits, road verges, railway embankments, and similar disturbed stony ground.

<i>Verbascum boerhavii</i> Species of flowering plant in the family Scrophulaceae

Verbascum boerhavii, the annual mullein, is a species of flowering plant in the family Scrophulariaceae, native to Spain, France, and Italy. It has been traditionally used as a treatment for haemorrhoids. It contains the phenylpropanoid glycoside poliumoside, which has an affinity for metalloproteinases.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 "Verbascum thapsus (common mullein)". CABI. 20 November 2018. Retrieved 13 July 2019.
  2. 1 2 3 "Mullein". Drugs.com. 23 November 2020. Retrieved 7 February 2021.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 Ferguson, Ian Keith (1972). "V. thapsus". In Tutin, Thomas Gaskell; et al. (eds.). Flora Europaea . Vol. 3: Diapensiaceae to Myoporaceae. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 211. ISBN   0-521-08489-X.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 Blamey, M., & Grey-Wilson, C. (1989). Flora of Britain and Northern Europe. Hodder & Stoughton, ISBN   0-340-40170-2.
  5. 1 2 3 4 "Verbascum thapsus". Flora of China. eFloras.org. Retrieved 2009-11-06.
  6. 1 2 Wetherwax, M. (1993). "Verbascum thapsus L." Jepson Manual online. University of California at Berkeley . Retrieved 2009-11-06.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 Stace, C. van der Meijden, R.; de Kort, I. (eds.). "Verbascum thapsus (Mullein, Great)". Interactive Flora of NW Europe. World Biodiversity Database. Archived from the original on 2012-06-06. Retrieved 2011-11-20.
  8. Huxley, A., ed. (1992). New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. Macmillan. ISBN   0-333-47494-5
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Remaley, Tom (1998). "Verbascum thapsus". Plant Conservation Alliance's Alien Plant Working Group. Retrieved 2009-11-06.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Hoshovsky, Marc C. (August 2001). "Element Stewardship Abstract for Verbascum thapsus" (PDF). The Global Invasive Species Initiative. Retrieved 2009-11-06.
  11. 1 2 3 4 Hilty, John. "Great Mullein". Weedy Wildflowers of Illinois. Illinois Wildflowers. Retrieved 2009-11-06.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Pitcairn, Michael. "Verbascum thapsus". Invasive Plants of California's Wildland. California Invasive Plant Council. Archived from the original on 2011-03-12. Retrieved 2009-11-06.
  13. 1 2 Pennel, Francis Whittier (1935). The Scrophulariaceae of eastern temperate North America. Philadelphia: George W. Carpenter Fund. pp. 173–174. OCLC   852625.
  14. 1 2 Carnoy, A. (1959). Dictionnaire étymologique des noms grecs de plantes (in French). Louvain: Publications Universitaires. OCLC   3284108.
  15. (in Swedish) Den virtuella Floran: Verbascum thapsus, retrieved on November 6, 2009.
  16. Charters, Michael L. "Plant name: T". California Plant Names: Latin and Greek Meanings and Derivations. Calflora.net. Retrieved 2009-11-06.
  17. 1 2 "Verbascum thapsus: citation". Atlas of Florida vascular Plants. Institute for Systematic Botany. Retrieved 2009-11-06.
  18. Natural History Museum (2022). "Verbascum thapsus". Linnaean Plant Name Typification Project. Natural History Museum. doi:10.5519/qwv6u7j5 . Retrieved 2009-11-06.
  19. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Gross, Katherine L.; Patricia A. Werner (April 1978). "The Biology of Canadian Weeds. 28. Verbascum thapsus L. and V. blattaria L". Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 58 (2): 401–413. doi: 10.4141/cjps78-062 . Reprinted in Mulligan, G.A. (1979), The Biology of Canadian Weeds I, ISBN   0-662-10668-7, pp. 320–331.
  20. "Verbascum thapsus synonymy". Northern Ontario Plant Database. Retrieved 2009-11-06.
  21. Sotoodeh, Arash (2014). "Verbascum oreophilum var. oreophilum and Verbascum cheiranthifolium var. asperulum (Scrophulariaceae) two new records for the flora of Iran". Phytotaxa. 178 (3): 205–210. doi:10.11646/phytotaxa.178.3.6. S2CID   86267331.
  22. Sotoodeh, Arash; Civeyrel, L.; Attar, F. (19 March 2015). "Verbascum shahsavarensis (Scrophulariaceae), a new species for Flora of Iran". Phytotaxa. 203 (1): 76. doi:10.11646/phytotaxa.203.1.8.
  23. Attar, Farideh; et al. (2007). "Micromorphological studies on Verbascum (Scrophulariaceae) in Iran with emphasis on seed surface, capsule ornamentation and trichomes". Flora – Morphology, Distribution, Functional Ecology of Plants. 202 (2): 169–175. doi:10.1016/j.flora.2006.04.001.
  24. 1 2 Benedí Gonzalez, Carles (2009). "Verbascum" (PDF). Flora Iberica (in Spanish). Vol. XIII: Plantaginaceae-Scrophulariaceae. Madrid: Real Jardín Botánico. pp. 49–97. ISBN   978-84-00-08747-0. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-05-13.
  25. 1 2 Kartesz, John (1994). A synonymized checklist of the vascular flora of the United States, Canada, and Greenland (Volume 1: Checklist). Portland, Oregon: Timber Press. p. 588. ISBN   0-88192-204-8.
  26. Natural History Museum (2022). "Verbascum × thapsi". Linnaean Plant Name Typification Project. Natural History Museum. doi:10.5519/qwv6u7j5 . Retrieved 2007-05-14.
  27. 1 2 3 Schmeil, Otto; Fitschen, Jost; Seybold, Siegmund (2006). Flora von Deutschland, 93. Auflage. Wiebelsheim: Quelle & Meyer Verlag. p. 496. ISBN   3-494-01413-2.
  28. "Verbascum thapsus L. subsp. montanum (Schrad.) Bonnier et layens". Herbario Virtual del Mediterráneo Occidental (in Catalan). Universitat de les Illes Balears. Retrieved 2009-11-06.
  29. "Verbascum L." PLANTS Profile. USDA Natural resources Conservation Service. Archived from the original on November 19, 2010. Retrieved 2007-03-07.
  30. "Great Mullein Verbascum thapsus Linnaeus". Wildlife Statistics. Joint Nature Conservation Committee. Archived from the original on 2007-09-28. Retrieved 2009-11-06.
  31. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Grieve, Margaret (1982) [1931]. "Mullein, Great". A Modern Herbal. Vol. 2: I-Z. New York: Dover Publication. ISBN   0-486-22799-5 . Retrieved 2009-11-06.
  32. 1 2 Watts (2000), pp. 633–634.
  33. Niering, William A. (1979). The Audubon Society field guide to North American wildflowers, eastern region. New York: Knopf. p. 798. ISBN   0-394-50432-1.
  34. 1 2 3 Harold William Rickett, ed. (1966). "The Mulleins (Verbascum)". Wild Flowers of the United States. Vol. 1. The Northeastern States (Part 2). New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 389. LCCN   66017920.
  35. "Beyond the River". Texas Parks & Wildlife Magazine. Dale Weisman. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
  36. "BIO 406D-Native Plants" (PDF). An Introduction to the Flora of Central Texas. Michael Gruenstaeudl. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
  37. Britton, Nathaniel A.; Addison Brown (1979). "Illustrated Flora of the Northern United States and Canada". An illustrated flora of the northern United States and Canada. Vol. 3. Gentianaceae to Compositae. New York: Dover Publications. p. 175. ISBN   0-486-22644-1.
  38. Brako, Lois; Rossman, Amy Y.; Farr, David F. (1995). Scientific and common names of 7,000 vascular plants in the United States. St. Paul, Minnesota: APS Press. p. 189. ISBN   0-89054-171-X.
  39. Watts (2000), pp. 108, 369.
  40. "mullein (n.)". Etymonline.
  41. Coutts, J; Osborn, A; Edwards, A (1954). Preston, G.H. (ed.). The Complete Book of Gardening. Great Britain: Ward, Lock & Co., Limited. p. 255.
  42. Watts (2000), pp. 774–775, 819–820. p. 866: "A tall plant like Mullein attracts 'staff' and 'rod' names."
  43. Watts (2000), pp. 302, 634.
  44. Flora Europaea: Verbascum thapsus, retrieved on November 6, 2009.
  45. 1 2 "Verbascum thapsus". Germplasm Resources Information Network . Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture . Retrieved November 6, 2009.
  46. "Ficha de la Especie Verbascum thapsus". Base de Datos sobre Invasiones Biológicas en Argentina (in Spanish). Universidad Nacional del Sur. Archived from the original on 2009-07-15. Retrieved 2009-11-06.
  47. "Verbascum thapsus". Global Invasive Species Database. IUCN Invasive Species Specialist Group. 8 July 2005. Archived from the original on 2009-07-15. Retrieved 2009-11-06.
  48. "Verbascum thapsus". Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk. Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project. February 19, 2007. Retrieved 2009-11-06.
  49. "List of alien species recognized to be established in Japan or found in the Japanese wild (as of October 27, 2004)" (PDF). Japan Ministry of Environment. Retrieved 2009-11-06.
  50. Mitch, Larry W. "Common Mullein—the Roadside Torch Parade". Intriguing World of Weeds. Weed Science Society of America. Archived from the original on July 2, 2009. Retrieved 2009-11-06.
  51. "Verbascum thapsus". PLANTS Database. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. Archived from the original on October 16, 2010. Retrieved 2009-11-06.
  52. "Verbascum thapsus". NatureServe Explorer. Archived from the original on 2008-05-11. Retrieved 2009-11-06.[], retrieved December 29, 2006.
  53. Parker, Ingrid M.; Joseph Rodriguez; Michael E. Loik (February 2003). "An Evolutionary Approach to Understanding the Biology of Invasions: Local Adaptation and General-Purpose Genotypes in the Weed Verbascum thapsus". Conservation Biology. 17 (1): 59–72. Bibcode:2003ConBi..17...59P. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.2003.02019.x. S2CID   18289261.
  54. 1 2 3 Turker, Arzu Ucar; Ekrem Gurel (September 2005). "Common Mullein (Verbascum thapsus L.): Recent Advances in Research" (PDF). Phytotherapy Research. 19 (9): 733–739. doi:10.1002/ptr.1653. PMID   16222647. S2CID   11961736. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-02-13.
  55. Reinartz, James A. (November 1984). "Life History Variation of Common Mullein (Verbascum Thapsus): I. Latitudinal Differences in Population Dynamics and Timing of Reproduction". The Journal of Ecology. 72 (3): 897–912. Bibcode:1984JEcol..72..897R. doi:10.2307/2259539. ISSN   0022-0477. JSTOR   2259539.
  56. Reinartz, James A. (November 1984). "Life History Variation of Common Mullein (Verbascum Thapsus): III. Differences Among Sequential Cohorts". The Journal of Ecology. 72 (3): 927–936. Bibcode:1984JEcol..72..927R. doi:10.2307/2259541. JSTOR   2259541.
  57. Kivilaan, A.; Robert S. Bandurski (October 1981). "The One Hundred-Year Period for Dr. Beal's Seed Viability Experiment". American Journal of Botany. 69 (9): 1290–1292. doi:10.2307/2443054. ISSN   0002-9122. JSTOR   2443054.
  58. Westrich, Paul (1996). "Habitat requirements of central European bees and the problems of partial habitats" (PDF). In Matheson; et al. (eds.). The Conservation of Bees. Linnean Society Symposium Series, 18. London: Academic Press. pp. 1–16.
  59. Coutlee, Ellen L. (December 1963). "Maintenance Behavior of the American Goldfinch" (PDF). Wilson Bulletin. 75 (4): 342–357. ISSN   0043-5643.
  60. Banko, Paul C., Black, Jeffrey M. and Banko, Winston E. (1999). Hawaiian Goose (Branta sandvicensis), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology.
  61. Banko, Paul C. et al. (2002). Palila (Loxioides bailleui), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornitholog.
  62. Garrett, Kimball L., Raphael, Martin G. and Dixon, Rita D. (1996). White-headed Woodpecker (Picoides albolarvatus), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology.
  63. Reiner, Ralph E. (1969). Introducing the Flowering Beauty of Glacier National Park and the Majestic High Rockies. Glacier Park, Inc. p. 42.
  64. The History of the British Flora, A Factual Basis for Phytogeography by Sir Harry Godwin, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, ISBN   0 521 20254 X, 1975 edition page 318
  65. "Colorado State-listed Noxious Weeds". PLANTS Database. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. Archived from the original on July 2, 2009. Retrieved 2009-11-06.
  66. "Hawaii State-listed Noxious Weeds". PLANTS Database. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. Archived from the original on October 8, 2010. Retrieved 2009-11-06.
  67. Faithful, Ian. "Great Mullein". Victoria Department of Primary Industries. Archived from the original on March 15, 2011. Retrieved 2009-11-06.
  68. 1 2 3 4 Horton, David R.; Tamera M. Lewis (December 2003). "Numbers and types of arthropods overwintering on common mullein, Verbascum thapsus L. (Scrophulariaceae), in a central Washington fruit-growing region" (PDF). Journal of the Entomological Society of British Columbia. 100: 79–86. ISSN   0071-0733. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 16, 2010. Retrieved 2009-11-06.
  69. Price, W. C. (July 1940). "Comparative Host Ranges of Six Plant Viruses". American Journal of Botany. 57 (7): 530–541. doi:10.2307/2437088. ISSN   0002-9122. JSTOR   2437088.
  70. Higbee, Bradley S. "Campylomma verbasci (Meyer)". Biological Control: A Guide to Natural Enemies in North America. Cornell University. Archived from the original on 2012-04-25. Retrieved 2011-12-21.
  71. Ferguson, Gillian (26 September 2005). "Can Dicyphus hesperus control whiteflies in greenhouse tomatoes?". Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs. Archived from the original on January 27, 2006. Retrieved 2009-11-06.
  72. Sanchez, Juan Antonio; David R. Gillespie; Robert R. McGregor (November 2003). "The effects of mullein plants (Verbascum thapsus) on the population dynamics of Dicyphus hesperus (Heteroptera: Miridae) in tomato greenhouses". Biological Control. 28 (3): 313–319. Bibcode:2003BiolC..28..313S. doi:10.1016/S1049-9644(03)00116-6.
  73. "HOSTS – a Database of the World's Lepidopteran Hostplants". The Natural History Museum. Archived from the original on June 27, 2008. Retrieved 2009-11-06.
  74. "Verbascum thapsus". Plants For A Future. Retrieved 2011-03-16.
  75. 1 2 Silverman, Maida (1977). "Mullein". A City Herbal: Lore, Legend, & Uses of Common Weeds . Ash Tree Publishing. pp.  99–104. ISBN   1-888123-00-1.
  76. 1 2 3 4 5 Hanrahan, Claire; Rebecca J. Frey (2005). "Mullein". In Jacqueline L. Longe (ed.). The Gale encyclopedia of alternative medicine. Vol. 3: L-R (2nd ed.). Detroit: Thomson Gale. ISBN   0-7876-7427-3. Archived from the original on July 15, 2009. Retrieved 2006-11-30.
  77. Camzine, Scott; Bye, Robert A. (1980). "A Study Of The Medical Ethnobotany Of The Zuni Indians of New Mexico". Journal of Ethnopharmacology . 2 (4): 365–388, 378. doi:10.1016/S0378-8741(80)81017-8. PMID   6893476.
  78. Drury, Susan (1991). "Plants and Wart Cures in England from the Seventeenth to the Nineteenth Century: Some Examples". Folklore. 102 (1): 97–100. doi:10.1080/0015587X.1991.9715809. JSTOR   1260360.
  79. Turker, Arzu Ucar; N. D. Camper (October 2002). "Biological activity of common mullein, a medicinal plant". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 82 (2–3): 117–125. doi:10.1016/S0378-8741(02)00186-1. PMID   12241986.
  80. "Mullein flower". The Commission E Monographs. American Botanical Council. February 1, 1990. Archived from the original on 2006-05-11. Retrieved 2009-11-06.
  81. 1 2 3 Niering, William A.; Olmstead, Nancy C. (1985) [1979]. The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Wildflowers, Eastern Region. Knopf. p. 653. ISBN   0-394-50432-1.
  82. Latin, English
  83. Wilhelm, Gene (April 1974). "The mullein: Plant piscicide of the mountain folk culture". Geographical Review . 64 (2): 235–252. Bibcode:1974GeoRv..64..235W. doi:10.2307/213812. JSTOR   213812.

Further reading