Freemasonry (sometimes spelled Free-Masonry)[1][2][3] consists of several fraternal groups that trace their origins to the medieval guilds of stonemasons. Freemasonry is the oldest secular fraternity in the world and among the oldest still continued organizations in history.[4]
Modern Freemasonry broadly consists of three main traditions:
Anglo-American style Freemasonry,[5][6] which insists that a "volume of sacred law", such as the Bible, the Quran, or other religious scripture be open in a working lodge, that every member professes belief in a supreme being, that only men be admitted, and that discussion of religion or politics does not take place within the lodge.
Continental style Freemasonry or Liberal Freemasonry[7][8] which has continued to evolve beyond these restrictions, particularly regarding religious belief and political discussion.
All three traditions have evolved over time from their original forms and they can all refer to themselves as Regular[11] and to other Grand Lodges as Irregular. For example, the Grand Orient de France finds some Grand Orients regular that the United Grand Lodge of England finds Irregular and vice versa—the Anglo-American style Freemasonry has moved from requiring specifically Christian membership with only the Bible on the altar to its current nondenominational form, while the Continental style Freemasonry evolved in different directions, particularly in not requiring a religious belief. Each of these traditions maintains its own philosophical approach to Masonic principles. The organizations within the Continental and women's Masonic systems are not officially recognized by Anglo-American Grand Lodges but operate independently, often following the same Masonic rules, regulations, rituals and traditions (sometimes sharing buildings, such as Freemasons' Hall in London).[12]
The basic, local organisational unit of Freemasonry is the Lodge. These private Lodges are usually supervised at the regional level (usually coterminous with a state, province, or national border) by a Grand Lodge or Grand Orient. There is no international, worldwide Grand Lodge that supervises all of Freemasonry; each Grand Lodge is independent, and they do not necessarily recognise each other as being legitimate. Lodges are found around the world and on all populated continents; however due to anti-Masonry and laws that effectively ban the tradition, it does not have a presence in every country. In the spirit of brotherhood and hopefulness, however, Freemasons usually presume that clandestine lodges may nonetheless exist in those countries in which it is banned, even if they may not actually exist.[citation needed]
The degrees of Freemasonry are the three grades of medieval craft guilds: Entered Apprentice, Journeyman or Fellow of the craft[13] (now called either "Fellowcraft" or "Fellow Craft"[13][14] in English speaking jurisdictions, and "Companion" in non-English speaking jurisdictions), and Master Mason. The candidate of these three degrees is progressively taught the meanings of the symbols of Freemasonry and entrusted with grips, signs, and words to signify to other members that he has been so initiated. The degrees are part allegorical morality play and part lecture. These three degrees form Craft (or Blue Lodge) Freemasonry, and members of any of these degrees are known as Free-Masons,[15]Freemasons or Masons. Once the Craft degrees have been conferred upon a Mason, he is qualified to join various "Concordant bodies" which offer additional degrees. These organisations are usually administered separately from the Grand Lodges who administer the Craft degrees. The extra degrees vary with locality and jurisdiction. In addition to these bodies, there are further organizations outside of the more traditional rites of Freemasonry, that require an individual to be a Master Mason before they can join (such as the Rosicrucian Society of England).
Throughout its history, Freemasonry has received criticism and opposition on religious and political grounds. The Catholic Church, some Protestant denominations, and certain Islamic countries or entities have expressed opposition to or banned membership in Freemasonry. Opposition to Freemasonry is sometimes rooted in anti-Semitism or conspiracy theories,[16][17] and Freemasons have historically been persecuted by authoritarian states.[18][19]
Lodge in Palazzo Roffia, Florence, set out for French (Premiere Grand Lodge) ritual
The Masonic lodge is the basic organisational unit of Freemasonry.[20]
Lodge activities and meetings
The Masonic Lodge meets regularly to conduct various activities. While practices vary by jurisdiction, Rite, and local tradition, there are common elements across Freemasonry.[21]
In many jurisdictions, Lodges conduct the usual formal business of any small organisation during regular meetings. This includes approving minutes, electing new members, appointing officers and taking their reports, considering correspondence, reviewing bills and annual accounts, and organising social and charitable events.[22]
However, some Lodges, Rites, and jurisdictions consider an opened Lodge to be a sacred space where profane business activities are strictly forbidden.[23] In these traditions, administrative matters are typically conducted either before the Lodge is formally opened, in a separate business meeting, or handled by special committees outside of Lodge meetings.[24]
Depiction of Masons at work in Lodge in the "three globes Lodge" in Berlin, circa 1740. Free-Masons can be seen measuring globes and discussing various topics whilst holding masonic instruments
Whether business is conducted during an opened Lodge or not, all Masonic meetings include ritual work and also educational activities such as:
Receiving lectures on aspects of Masonic history or ritual[25]
Reading of Masonic papers (also called "Piece of Architecture" or "Planche" in some jurisdictions) - Can be on a wide variety of topics including Masonic, philosophical, technological or personal[26]
Proving proficiency to the Lodge to obtain a new degree (also called a wage increase)[29]
At the conclusion of the meeting, the Lodge may hold a formal dinner, called Agape[30] or festive board, sometimes involving toasting and song.[31] These meetings are typically held in a Masonic temple, though other venues may occasionally be used.
The bulk of Masonic ritual consists of degree ceremonies. Candidates for Freemasonry are progressively initiated into Freemasonry, first in the degree of Entered Apprentice. At some later time, in separate ceremonies, they will be passed to the degree of Fellow Craft; and then raised to the degree of Master Mason. In each of these ceremonies, the candidate must first take the new obligations of the degree, and is then entrusted with secret knowledge including passwords, signs and grips (secret handshakes) confined to his new rank.[32] Although these symbols and gestures are nominally secret, they are readily found in public sources, including those published by Masonic organisations themselves.[33][34]
Another ceremony is the annual installation of the Master of the Lodge and his appointed or elected officers.[22] In some jurisdictions, an Installed Master elected, obligated, and invested to preside over a Lodge, is valued as a separate rank with its own secrets and distinctive title and attributes; after each full year in the chair the Master invests his elected successor and becomes a Past Master with privileges in the Lodge and Grand Orient.[35] In other jurisdictions, the grade is not recognised, and no inner ceremony conveys new secrets during the installation of a new Master of the Lodge.[36]
Most Lodges have some sort of social functions, allowing members, their partners, and non-Masonic guests to meet openly.[37] Often coupled with these events is the discharge of every Mason's and Lodge's collective obligation to contribute to charity. This occurs at many levels, including in annual dues, subscriptions, and fundraising events; and may be organized at the local Lodge level, a regional/district level or at the Grand jurisdiction level. Masons and their charities contribute for the relief of need in many fields, such as education, health and old age.[38][39]
Private Lodges form the backbone of Freemasonry, with the sole right to elect their own candidates for initiation as Masons or admission as joining Masons, and sometimes with exclusive rights over residents local to their premises. There are non-local Lodges where Masons meet for wider or narrower purposes, such as in association with some hobby, sport, Masonic research, business, profession, regiment or college. The rank of Master Mason also entitles a Freemason to explore Masonry further through other degrees, administered separately from the basic Craft or "Blue Lodge" degrees described here, but generally having a similar structure and meetings.[40]
There is much diversity and little consistency in Freemasonry because each Masonic jurisdiction is independent and sets its own rules and procedures while Grand Lodges have limited jurisdiction over their constituent member Lodges, which are ultimately private clubs. The wording of the ritual, the number of officers present, the layout of the meeting room, etc. varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction.[40][41]
Almost all officers of a Lodge are elected or appointed annually. Every Masonic Lodge has a Master, two Wardens, a treasurer and a secretary. There is also always a Tyler, or outer guard, outside the door of a working Lodge, who may be paid to secure its privacy. Other offices vary between jurisdictions.[40]
Each Masonic Lodge exists and operates according to its own by-laws and the rules and regulations of its own Grand Orient or Grand Lodge, which elude any universally accepted definition and vary depending on the Jurisdiction.[42]
The process of joining a Masonic lodge follows similar general patterns worldwide while preserving regional and local variations between individual Lodges, Jurisdictions, Conservative and Liberal traditions. Historically, candidates "were not to be admitted but by unanimous consent," a principle that continues in many lodges today, while some other jurisdictions have developed different systems to counter a potential problematic situation with a single black ball system. Additionally, some Lodges use black cubes instead of black balls to avoid confusion.[43]
Initial approach
In the early days of Freemasonry, one had to be approached and "co-opted" to the Fraternity by an existing member but had to do it of his "own free-will and accord".[44] This tradition continues in many jurisdictions mainly in Europe, Africa and South America. However, many obediences have adapted their approach methods, now allowing those without prior Masonic connections to express interest through online forms or during public events such as Masonic exhibitions and open conferences.[45][46][47]
A consistent rule throughout most Jurisdictions worldwide is that Freemasonry is not allowed to blindly recruit members. The prospective candidate must be qualified and either contacted by a member or reach out on his own.
In some Lodges the candidate is allowed to meet the members of the lodge they wish to join before being proposed for initiation; this allows all of the members to meet and get an idea of the candidate. While in other Lodges it is strictly prohibited for a non-mason (profane) to meet the members of the Lodge (besides the Master and proposer) before initiation in order to protect the identity of the members.
An old masonic term for the brother that proposes a candidate to a Lodge is that he becomes his 'Godfather' after invitation. This term is found in one of the earliest Masonic exposures "Reception of a Frey-Macon, 1737":
"the recipient is led by the Proposer, who becomes his Godfather, into one of the Lodge's rooms, where there is no light, & where he is asked if he has the vocation to be received."
Once initial contact is established, the candidate is typically introduced to the lodge through sponsorship, typically by finding two members to sign the petition, the top-line signer becoming the godfather. The sponsor assumes significant responsibility toward the lodge by presenting a non-Mason, evaluating the alignment between the candidate's aspirations and Masonic values. This preliminary phase can last from a few months to several years depending on the Lodge and jurisdiction and generally includes several informal meetings to establish mutual trust and clarify expectations.[49]
Following this introduction, an investigation is generally started. Candidates can be invited to a series of interviews with various lodge officers or designated members. These meetings, often three in number, examine the candidate's profile, motivations, and compatibility with the lodge's philosophical orientation. The interviews also allow the candidate to ask questions and develop a clearer understanding of the commitment they are considering.[50]
If both the candidate and the lodge wish to proceed after these preliminary steps, a formal application may be proposed and seconded or announced in open Lodge and a more or less formal interview usually follows. If the candidate wishes to proceed, references are taken up during a period of notice so that members may enquire into the candidate's suitability and discuss it.[51]
In many Jurisdictions a structured investigation is conducted by three members who do not personally know the candidate. These investigators meet individually with the applicant in different contexts with predetermined questions (or field of questions), examining their moral qualities, philosophical views, and ability to integrate into collective work or their Past, Present/future and Motivations. Each investigator then reports back to the lodge with their impressions, often expressing a favourable or unfavourable opinion. These preliminary interviews help both the lodge members and the candidate better understand each other before proceeding to the next stage.[52]
Following these investigations, some individual Lodges, Rites or Jurisdictions can or must implement a significant procedural step known as passing under the blindfold or sometimes the Low Door.[53][54] This is not part of the initiation ceremony itself but rather a formal presentation of the candidate to the assembled lodge prior to any vote on admission. The candidate, blindfolded, is introduced to the lodge and must answer questions posed by the members. While previous investigators have reported the candidate's views, this direct questioning allows members to hear directly from the candidate and clarifies any uncertainties that may have arisen during the investigation process. Being blindfolded serves two purposes: it maintains the candidate's inability to identify lodge members if not admitted, and it allows the candidate to focus on the questions without being distracted by unfamiliar surroundings. It is only after this procedure that the lodge votes on the candidate's admission.[55][56]
Finally, the Lodge takes an officially secret ballot on each application before a candidate is either initiated or rejected.[51] This ballot, traditionally using white balls (favourable) and black balls (unfavourable), gave rise to the expression "blackballed" to describe rejection. The exact number of adverse ballots ("blackballs") required to reject a candidate varies between Masonic jurisdictions.[57]
Eligibility requirements
Masonic jurisdictions maintain various eligibility requirements, which differ significantly between Anglo-American tradition and Liberal traditions:
In Anglo-American Freemasonry, exemplified by the United Grand Lodge of England and its recognised jurisdictions, candidates must typically:
Unmutilated (not followed in most jurisdictions anymore)[61]
The question of freedom, a standard feudal requirement of mediaeval guilds, is nowadays one of independence: the object is that every Mason should be a proper and responsible person.[51] Thus, each Grand Lodge has a standard minimum age, varying greatly and often subject to dispensation in particular cases.
Additionally, Grand Lodges in this tradition require a candidate to declare a belief in a supreme being (although every candidate must interpret this condition in his own way, as all religious discussion is commonly prohibited).
In a few cases, the candidate may be required to be of a specific religion. The form of Freemasonry most common in Scandinavia (known as the Swedish Rite), and the Rectified Scottish Rite for example, only accepts Christians.[62][63]
In Liberal Freemasonry, exemplified by the Grand Orient de France, requirements have evolved to emphasize freedom of conscience, they include:[64]
No commitment incompatible with reason, honour, free conscience, or the laws of the country.[66]
Some obediences have removed the requirement for belief in a supreme being, accepting atheists and agnostics. Many Liberal bodies now accept women, either in mixed-gender lodges or women-only lodges. The emphasis is placed on moral character, philosophical inquiry, and commitment to human progress.[67][68]
The diverse approaches to these fundamental requirements reflect the philosophical evolution within Freemasonry over time, with bodies following the Anglo-American style maintaining traditional rules (although still evolving) while Liberal traditions have adapted to changing social contexts.[69]
After successful passage through the investigation process and favourable vote, the initiation ceremony marks the candidate's official entry into Freemasonry.
Progression through degrees
The time between degrees varies considerably across jurisdictions and individual Lodges. Depending on the specific lodge and jurisdictions, progression can be relatively quick—sometimes within a year to multiple years, while it is difficult to establish an average due to the wide ranges of style. Many Grand Lodges or Grand Orients have a minimum of one year in-between degrees. Being passed to the next degree depends on the requirements established by the individual Lodge and jurisdictions. These can include demonstrating proficiency through presentations of masonic research papers, active participation in the Lodge, memorisation of the ritual or other masonic documents, reading books or even concrete self-improvement.[70]
Grand Lodges (sometimes termed Grand Orients) are independent and sovereign bodies that govern Masonry in a given country, state or geographical area (termed a jurisdiction). There is no single overarching governing body that presides over worldwide Freemasonry; connections between different jurisdictions depend solely on mutual recognition.[71][72]
Estimates of the worldwide membership of Freemasonry in the early 21st century ranged from about two million to more than six million.[73][bettersourceneeded]
The fraternity is administratively organised into independent Grand Lodges (or sometimes Grand Orients), each of which governs its own Masonic jurisdiction, which consists of subordinate (or constituent) Lodges.
The United Grand Lodge of England (UGLE) remains the largest Masonic jurisdiction worldwide. However, its membership has declined dramatically, from about 500,000 members in the 1960s to approximately 170,000 in 2023.[74][75] The organisation is structured into various Provincial Grand Lodges at the local level. Similarly, the Grand Lodge of Ireland has experienced a steep decline, with membership falling from 100,000 in 1960 to around 19,000 members currently.[76]
In the United States, Masonic membership is organised in two systems, first through 51 “mainstream” Grand Lodges—one for each state plus the District of Columbia. While these Grand Lodges once boasted over 4 million members in 1957, membership has declined sharply. According to the Masonic Service Association of North America, current combined membership across these jurisdictions stands at approximately 875,000 members.[77]
Additionally, there are 46 Prince Hall Grand Lodges in amity with UGLE, operating across various U.S. states, as well as multiple Prince Hall style Grand Lodges that split off from the recognized group. Prince Hall Freemasonry is a historically African-American branch of Freemasonry that maintains its own separate Grand Lodge system parallel to the state Grand Lodge system.[78]
Together, these two systems—the “mainstream” Grand Lodges and Prince Hall Grand Lodges—make up for a total of 97 UGLE recognised Grand Lodges, sharing jurisdictions in the United States. They represent the main bodies of Masonic governance in the United States, though both have experienced significant membership declines since their mid-20th century peaks.[79]
In France, the Grand Orient de France stands as the largest and most influential body in Liberal Freemasonry, with over 53,000 members across approximately 1,381 lodges. Unlike many Conservative jurisdictions that have experienced significant membership declines, the Grand Orient has demonstrated remarkable growth, increasing from 33,000 members in 1960 to 53,000 in 2023. This growth reflects the enduring appeal of its Liberal philosophical approach, which emphasizes freedom of conscience, social progress, and intellectual inquiry. The Grand Orient has been particularly influential in French political and intellectual life, championing principles of secularism, democracy, and human rights throughout its history.[80]
Grand Lodges and Grand Orients
There is no fundamental difference between a Grand Orient and a Grand Lodge; they are simply different terminologies for the same type of institution. The term "Grand Orient" was first popularised in 1773 when the Grand Lodge of France voted to rename itself the Grand Orient de France. The word "Orient" means "East" in Latin.[81]
Relations between Grand Lodges are determined by the concept of Recognition. Each Grand Lodge or Grand Orient maintains a list of other Grand Orients or Grand Lodges that it recognises.[85] When two Grand Lodges recognise and are in Masonic communication with each other, they are said to be in amity, and the brethren of each may visit each other's Lodges and interact Masonically. When two Grand Lodges are not in amity, inter-visitation is not allowed. There are many reasons one Grand Lodge will withhold or withdraw recognition from another, but the two most common are Exclusive Jurisdiction and Regularity.[86]
Exclusive jurisdiction
Exclusive Jurisdiction is a concept whereby normally only one Grand Lodge will be recognised in any geographical area. If two Grand Lodges claim jurisdiction over the same area, the other Grand Lodges will have to choose between them, and they may not all decide to recognise the same one. (In 1849, for example, the Grand Lodge of New York split into two rival factions, each claiming to be the legitimate Grand Lodge. Other Grand Lodges had to choose between them until the schism was healed.[87]) Exclusive Jurisdiction can be waived when the two overlapping Grand Lodges are themselves in amity and agree to share jurisdiction. For example, since the Grand Lodge of Connecticut is in amity with the Prince Hall Grand Lodge of Connecticut, the principle of Exclusive Jurisdiction does not apply, and other Grand Lodges may recognise both.[88] Likewise, the five distinct kinds of lodges in Germany have nominally united under one Grand Lodge in order to obtain international recognition.
Modern challenges and evolution
The concept of Exclusive Jurisdiction has been significantly challenged in the United States with the increasing recognition of Prince Hall Grand Lodges, a branch of Freemasonry created for African Americans. Historically, many "mainstream" or conservative U.S. Grand Lodges refused to recognize Prince Hall Grand Lodges operating in their states, citing Exclusive Jurisdiction. However, this began to change in 1989 when the Grand Lodge of Connecticut extended recognition to its Prince Hall counterpart.[89][90]
This initial recognition created a precedent for "shared jurisdiction" between mainstream and Prince Hall Grand Lodges, effectively modifying the traditional interpretation of Exclusive Jurisdiction. By 2024, most U.S. Grand Lodges have recognized their Prince Hall counterparts, establishing a new norm where two Grand Lodges can legitimately operate within the same geographical area, provided they maintain mutual recognition and amity.[91]
The evolution of this practice demonstrates how traditional Masonic principles can adapt to accommodate social progress while maintaining the fundamental aims of regular Freemasonry. Some jurisdictions have formalized this arrangement through written agreements that specifically outline the terms of shared jurisdiction.[92][93]
The concept of "regularity" originated before the divide between Conservative and Liberal Freemasonry existed, first appearing in Payne's regulations as printed in Anderson's Constitutions. In regulation VIII we find:
If any Set or Number of Masons shall take upon themselves to form a Lodge without the Grand-Master's Warrant, the regular Lodges are not to countenance them, or own them as fair Brethren and duly form'd, nor approve of their Acts and Deeds; but must treat them as Rebels, until they humble themselves, as the Grand-Master shall in his Prudence direct, and until he approve of them by his Warrant, which must be signify'd to the other Lodges, as the Custom is when a new Lodge is to be register'd in the List of Lodges.
This early recognition system was used to determine if a Lodge was trustworthy and not fraudulent, rather than to enforce doctrinal conformity.
Liberal and Conservative Recognition Systems
Interior of the Les Amis Philanthropes Liberal Masonic temple in Brussels, Grand Orient de Belgique
Both Liberal and Conservative traditions have developed their own interpretations of regularity, each evolving over time despite differing philosophical foundations. The modern understanding of these concepts crystallised after the 1877 constitutional reforms of the Grand Orient de France (GOdF), which embraced absolute freedom of conscience and removed mandatory belief in a Supreme Being.[95][96]
Conservative landmarks and their evolution
Conservative Freemasonry, exemplified by the United Grand Lodge of England (UGLE), bases its concept of regularity on adherence to "landmarks"—fundamental principles considered essential to Masonic identity. While often presented as immutable, these landmarks have undergone significant reinterpretation over time.[97]
The religious requirement, initially revolutionary in the early 1700s for being strictly for Christians but welcoming all denominations during an era of sectarian strife, has gradually expanded. It evolved first to include all religions with a revealed scripture and the resurrection of the body after life, then to accept belief in any supreme being, and increasingly allows more personalised interpretations of spirituality whilst maintaining the requirement for some form of metaphysical belief.[98][99]
Similarly, the principle of exclusive territorial jurisdiction has evolved in the United States, where many states now share jurisdiction between Prince Hall and mainstream Grand Lodges—a significant departure from historical practice.[93]
Perhaps most telling is the evolution regarding women in Freemasonry. The UGLE, whilst maintaining gender separation within its own Lodges, formally acknowledged in 1999 that "Freemasonry is not confined to men" and recognised the legitimacy of women's Masonic orders, though without permitting intervisitation.[100] The UGLE now engages in collaborative charitable projects with women's Masonic organisations, representing a significant evolution from earlier positions that denied women could be legitimate Freemasons at all.
It's important to understand that no universal landmarks exist within Freemasonry. Each Grand Lodge or Grand Orient maintains its own set of Landmarks, with some conservative bodies not codifying any specific landmarks whatsoever.[101] The practical reality of Masonic recognition hinges not on universal agreement about landmarks, but rather on ensuring that no recognised body violates the landmark principles held dear by the recognising jurisdiction. Within Conservative Freemasonry, the shared rules for Recognition vary considerably, shaped by the particular Masonic tradition each Grand Lodge embraces. Three landmark systems have gained particular prominence within Masonic jurisprudence: the 1929 United Grand Lodge of England landmarks, which focus on governance and practical recognition requirements;[102] Albert Mackey's extensive 1858 catalogue of twenty-five landmarks, which comprehensively delineates administrative structures and principles;[103] and Roscoe Pound's streamlined 1911 approach, which distils Masonic landmarks to seven essential philosophical elements.[104]
Comparison of Major Masonic Landmark Systems
Aspect
UGLE (1929)
Albert Mackey (1858)
Roscoe Pound (1911)
Number of Landmarks
8
25
7
Religious Requirements
Belief in a supreme being is required; scripture required on altar
Belief in a supreme being and the resurrection required; book of law required on altar
Belief in God; belief in persistence of personality; book of law required on altar
Gender Policy
Exclusively male; no relationship with mixed Lodges
Exclusively male; "free born and of mature age"
Must be a man, free born, and of age
Governance Structure
Grand Lodge has sovereign jurisdiction over Craft degrees
Government by Grand Master; specific rights and prerogatives of Grand Master; Lodge governance by Master and Wardens
Not specified as landmarks (considered customary law)
Core Principles
No discussion of politics or religion; adherence to ancient landmarks, customs and usages
Modes of recognition; secrecy; three degrees; Hiramic legend; equality of Masons; foundation in operative art
Legend of third degree; secrecy; symbolism of operative art
As can be seen from this comparison, while there are common elements across all three landmark systems (belief in Deity, male-only membership, symbolic/speculative nature), there are significant differences in scope, detail, and emphasis. The UGLE system focuses primarily on governance and recognition requirements, Mackey's extensive list includes detailed administrative prerogatives, while Pound's streamlined approach emphasizes the philosophical essentials.
Liberal landmarks and philosophical foundations
Liberal Freemasonry approaches regularity through a fundamentally different lens, tracing its philosophical foundations to earlier Masonic documents such as the Constitution of the Freemasons of Strasbourg in 1459,[105] which predates Anderson's Constitutions by over 250 years. Rather than viewing landmarks as fixed and immutable, Liberal Masonry sees them as principles open to democratic debate and evolutionary interpretation.
The Grand Orient de France (GOdF), established in 1723 renamed in 1773, serves as the gold standard in Liberal Masonic recognition. Recognition by the GOdF represents a significant achievement for any Grand Orient or Grand Lodge within the Liberal Masonic community, affirming their commitment to the principles of freedom of conscience and universal brotherhood. The GOdF maintains recognition agreements with numerous Masonic bodies worldwide based on shared philosophical principles rather than adherence to particular core principles or landmarks.
By contrast, Liberal Masonic bodies typically employ recognition criteria centred on:[106][107]
Adherence to the principle of freedom of conscience (liberté de conscience), a core value established in the GOdF's landmark 1877 constitutional reform[108]
Commitment to the advancement of humanity through reason, justice, and fraternity
Independence from religious dogma or political control
Open examination of philosophical, social, and ethical questions
Recognition of the equality and autonomy of all Masonic bodies
Respect for the diversity of Masonic traditions and practices
Democratic governance with regular assemblies where policy is determined by vote
These principles reflect the Enlightenment values that informed early Freemasonry, emphasising human reason, freethought, progressive social engagement, and intellectual liberty.
Furthermore, the Grand Orient de France famously describes what Freemasonry is in the first article of its constitution, deviation from these principles could lead a Grand Lodge to become un-recognised by the GOdF:
Freemasonry, an essentially philanthropic, philosophical and progressive institution, has for its object the search for truth, the study of morality and the practice of solidarity; it works for the material and moral improvement, the intellectual and social perfection of humanity. Its principles are mutual tolerance, respect for others and for oneself, and absolute freedom of conscience. Considering metaphysical conceptions as being exclusively within the domain of individual judgment of its members, it refuses all dogmatic affirmation. It attaches fundamental importance to secularism. Its motto is: Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.[109]
International Recognition Networks
Both traditions have established complex international networks to facilitate recognition and cooperation. Many Liberal Grand Lodges participate in CLIPSAS, which promotes a more inclusive approach to inter-Masonic relations than the exclusivity often practised by Conservative bodies. Founded in 1961 by eleven sovereign Masonic bodies, CLIPSAS has grown to include over 100 member obediences worldwide.[110] Though CLIPSAS's influence was challenged by the GOdF's withdrawal in 2019, it remains significant in facilitating Liberal Masonic relations globally. Other important Liberal Masonic international organisations include TRACIA (coordinating Liberal bodies across Europe and Latin America)[111] and UMM (uniting Mediterranean Masonic bodies).[112]
Conservative Freemasonry operates primarily through bilateral recognition between Grand Lodges, with the UGLE, Grand Lodge of Scotland, and Grand Lodge of Ireland (collectively known as the "Home Grand Lodges") having particular influence within this system. The Conference of Grand Masters of North America provides another forum for Conservative Masonic cooperation, though without the formal recognition powers of CLIPSAS in the Liberal tradition.[113]
Blue Lodges, known as Craft Lodges in the United Kingdom, offer only the three traditional degrees. In most jurisdictions, the rank of past or installed master is also conferred in Blue/Craft Lodges. Master Masons are able to extend their Masonic experience by taking further degrees, in concordant or other bodies whether or not approved by their own Grand Lodge.[citation needed][114]
The Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite is a system of 33 degrees, including the three Blue Lodge degrees administered by a local or national Supreme Council. This system is popular in North America, South America and in Continental Europe. In America, the York Rite, with a similar range, administers three orders of Masonry, namely the Royal Arch, Cryptic Masonry, and Knights Templar.[115]
In Britain, separate bodies administer each order. Freemasons are encouraged to join the Holy Royal Arch, which is linked to Mark Masonry in Scotland and Ireland, but completely separate in England. In England, the Royal Arch is closely associated with the Craft, automatically having many Grand Officers in common, including H.R.H the Duke of Kent as both Grand Master of the Craft and First Grand Principal of the Royal Arch. The English Knights Templar and Cryptic Masonry share the Mark Grand Lodge offices and staff at Mark Masons Hall.[116] The Ancient and Accepted Rite (similar to the Scottish Rite), requires a member to proclaim the Trinitarian Christian faith, and is administered from Duke Street in London.[117] Conversely, the Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia is a fully independent esoteric organization that requires members be United Grand Lodge of EnglandMaster Masons.
Ottoman noble Ahmad Nami dressed in full Masonic attire in 1925Example of Masonic symbols in Szprotawa PolandFreemasonry structure showing the symbols associated with the organization
Freemasonry describes itself as a "beautiful system of morality, veiled in allegory and illustrated by symbols".[118] The symbolism is mainly, but not exclusively, drawn from the tools of stonemasons—the square and compasses, the level and plumb rule, the trowel, the rough and smooth ashlars, among others. Moral lessons are attributed to each of these tools, although the assignment is by no means consistent. The meaning of the symbolism is taught and explored through ritual,[40] and in lectures and articles by individual Masons who offer their personal insights and opinions.
According to the scholar of Western esotericism Jan A. M. Snoek: "the best way to characterize Freemasonry is in terms of what it is not, rather than what it is".[119] All Freemasons begin their journey in the "craft" by being progressively "initiated", "passed" and "raised" into the three degrees of Craft, or Blue Lodge Masonry. During these three rituals, the candidate is progressively taught the Masonic symbols, and entrusted with grips or tokens, signs, and words to signify to other Masons which degrees he has taken. The dramatic allegorical ceremonies include explanatory lectures and revolve around the construction of the Temple of Solomon, and the artistry and death of the chief architect, Hiram Abiff. The degrees are those of "Entered apprentice", "Fellowcraft" and "Master Mason". While many different versions of these rituals exist, with various lodge layouts and versions of the Hiramic legend, each version is recognizable to any Freemason from any jurisdiction.[40]
In some jurisdictions, the main themes of each degree are illustrated by tracing boards. These painted depictions of Masonic themes are exhibited in the lodge according to which degree is being worked and are explained to the candidate to illustrate the legend and symbolism of each degree.[120]
The idea of Masonic brotherhood probably descends from a 16th-century legal definition of a "brother" as one who has taken an oath of mutual support to another. Accordingly, Masons swear at each degree to support and protect their brethren.[121] In most Lodges, the oath or obligation is taken on a Volume of Sacred Law, whichever book of divine revelation is appropriate to the religious beliefs of the individual brother (usually the Bible in the Anglo-American tradition). In Progressive continental Freemasonry, books other than scripture are permissible, a cause of rupture between Grand Lodges.[122]
Since the middle of the 19th century, Masonic historians have sought the origins of the movement in a series of similar documents known as the Old Charges, dating from the Regius Poem in about 1425[123] to the beginning of the 18th century. Alluding to the membership of a lodge of operative masons, they relate it to a mythologised history of the craft, the duties of its grades, and the manner in which oaths of fidelity are to be taken on joining.[124] The 15th century also sees the first evidence of ceremonial regalia.[125]
There is no clear mechanism by which these local trade organisations became today's Masonic Lodges. The earliest rituals and passwords known, from operative lodges around the turn of the 17th–18th centuries, show continuity with the rituals developed in the later 18th century by accepted or speculative Masons, as those members who did not practice the physical craft gradually came to be known.[126] The minutes of the Lodge of Edinburgh (Mary's Chapel) No. 1 in Scotland show a continuity from an operative lodge in 1598 to a modern speculative Lodge.[127] It is reputed to be the oldest Masonic Lodge in the world.[128]
View of room at the Masonic Hall, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk, England, early 20th century, set up for a Holy Royal Arch convocation
Alternatively, Thomas De Quincey in his work titled Rosicrucians and Freemasonry put forward the theory that suggested that Freemasonry may have been an outgrowth of Rosicrucianism. The theory had also been postulated in 1803 by German professor; J. G. Buhle.[129][130]
The first Grand Lodge, the Grand Lodge of London and Westminster, later called the Grand Lodge of England, was founded on St John's Day, 24 June 1717,[131] when four existing London Lodges met for a joint dinner. Over the next decade, most of the existing Lodges in England joined the new regulatory body, which itself entered a period of self-publicity and expansion. New lodges were created, and the fraternity began to grow.
During the course of the 18th century, as aristocrats and artists crowded out the craftsmen originally associated with the organization, Freemasonry became fashionable throughout Europe and the American colonies.[132][133]
Between 1730 and 1750, the Grand Lodge endorsed several significant changes that some Lodges could not endorse. A rival Grand Lodge was formed on 17 July 1751, which called itself the "Antient Grand Lodge of England" to signify that, in their opinion, these lodges were maintaining older traditions and rejected changes that the Premiere Grand Lodge had adopted. As an insult, the self proclaimed "Antient Grand Lodge" coined the term "modern" to designate the Premiere Grand Lodge (historians now use Premiere Grand Lodge and Antient Grand Lodge – to differentiate the two bodies).[134] These two Grand Lodges vied for supremacy until the Premiere Grand Lodge made a compromise with the antient Grand Lodge to return to a ritual that worked for both Grand Lodges. They re-united on 27 December 1813 to form the United Grand Lodge of England.[135][136]
The earliest known American lodges were in Pennsylvania. The collector for the port of Pennsylvania, John Moore, wrote of attending lodges there in 1715, two years before the putative formation of the first Grand Lodge in London. The Grand Lodge of England appointed a Provincial Grand Master for North America in 1731, based in Pennsylvania,[139] leading to the creation of the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania.
Other lodges in the colony of Pennsylvania obtained authorisations from the later Antient Grand Lodge of England, the Grand Lodge of Scotland, and the Grand Lodge of Ireland, which was particularly well represented in the travelling lodges of the British Army.[141][142] Many lodges came into existence with no warrant from any Grand Lodge, applying and paying for their authorisation only after they were confident of their own survival.[143]
After the American Revolution, independent U.S. Grand Lodges developed within each state. Some thought was briefly given to organising an overarching "Grand Lodge of the United States", with George Washington, who was a member of a Virginian lodge, as the first Grand Master, but the idea was short-lived. The various state Grand Lodges did not wish to diminish their own authority by agreeing to such a body.[144]
On April 30, 1789, George Washington took his oath of office at his first inauguration upon a Bible belonging to St. John's Lodge No. 1 of New York. Originally, it was expected that Washington would bring his own Bible upon which to swear his oath of office, and there was some consternation when it turned out that no one had informed Washington to bring one. Thinking quickly, Jacob Morton, the Marshal of the Inauguration (and Master of St. John's Lodge), borrowed the Lodge's Bible for use in the ceremony. That Bible has been known since as the George Washington Inaugural Bible, and is still in possession of St. John's Lodge No. 1 of the Grand Lodge of New York.[145]Robert Livingston, Chancellor of the State of New York, also the first Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons of the State of New York, administered the oath.[146] This event effectuated the establishment of the Executive Branch of the Federal Government of the United States, which had until then existed only virtually after the US Constitution become operational almost two months earlier, on March 4, 1789.[147][148]
Jamaican Freemasonry
Freemasonry was imported to Jamaica by British immigrants who colonized the island for over 300 years. In 1908, there were eleven recorded Masonic lodges, which included three Grand Lodges, two Craft lodges, and two Rose Croix chapters.[149] During slavery, the lodges were open to all "freeborn" men. According to the Jamaican 1834 census, that potentially included 5,000 free black men and 40,000 free people of colour (mixed race).[150] After the full abolition of slavery in 1838, the Lodges were open to all Jamaican men of any race.[151] Jamaica also kept close relationships with Masons from other countries. Jamaican Freemasonry historian Jackie Ranston, noted that:
Jamaica served as an arms depot for the revolutionary forces when two Kingston Freemasons, Wellwood and Maxwell Hyslop, financed the campaigns of Simón Bolívar, the Liberator, to whom six Latin American Republics owe their independence". Bolívar himself was a Mason, enjoying contacts with Brethren in Spain, England, France, and Venezuela until after gaining power in Venezuela, he prohibited all secret societies in 1828 and included the Freemasons.[151]
On 25 May 2017, Masons around the world celebrated the 300th anniversary of the fraternity. Jamaica hosted one of the regional gatherings for this celebration.[152][149]
Prince Hall Freemasonry exists because of the refusal of early American lodges to admit African Americans. In 1775, an African American named Prince Hall,[153] along with 14 other African American men, was initiated into a British military lodge with a warrant from the Grand Lodge of Ireland, having failed to obtain admission from the other lodges in Boston. When the British military Lodge left North America after the end of the Revolution, those 15 men were given the authority to meet as a Lodge, but not to initiate Masons. In 1784, these individuals obtained a Warrant from the Grand Lodge of England (Premiere Grand Lodge) and formed African Lodge, Number 459. When the two English grand lodges united in 1813, all U.S.-based Lodges were stricken from their rolls—largely because of the War of 1812. Thus, separated from both English jurisdiction and any concordantly recognised U.S. Grand Lodge, African Lodge retitled itself as the African Lodge, Number 1—and became a de facto Grand Lodge. (This lodge is not to be confused with the various Grand Lodges in Africa.) As with the rest of U.S. Freemasonry, Prince Hall Freemasonry soon grew and organised on a Grand Lodge system for each state.[154]
Unlike other fraternal orders, there was never any blanket rule against the admission of men based on their race. Each lodge and grand lodge had their own rules, both written and unwritten. A few non-Prince Hall lodges did admit Blacks, with Angelo Soliman being one notable Masonic personality of African descent. Nonetheless, widespread racial segregation in 19th- and early 20th-century North America made it difficult for African Americans to join Lodges outside of Prince Hall jurisdictions.[citation needed]
Today most (but not all) U.S. Grand Lodges recognise their Prince Hall counterparts, and the authorities of both traditions are working towards full recognition.[155] The United Grand Lodge of England has no problem with recognising Prince Hall Grand Lodges.[156] While celebrating their heritage as lodges of African Americans, Prince Hall is open to all men regardless of race or religion.[157]
English Freemasonry spread to France in the 1720s, first as lodges of expatriates and exiled Jacobites, and then as distinctively French lodges that still follow the ritual of the Premier Grand Lodge of England. From France and England, Freemasonry spread to most of Continental Europe during the course of the 18th century. The Grande Loge de France was formed under the Grand Mastership of the Duke of Clermont, who exercised only nominal authority. His successor, the Duke of Orléans, reconstituted the central body as the Grand Orient de France in 1773. Briefly eclipsed during the French Revolution, French Freemasonry continued to grow in the next century,[158] at first under the leadership of Alexandre Francois Auguste de Grasse, Comte de Grassy-Tilly.
After the failure of the 1830 Italian revolution, a number of Italian Freemasons were forced to flee. They secretly set up an approved chapter of Scottish Rite in Alexandria, a town already inhabited by a large Italian community. Meanwhile, the French Freemasons publicly organised a local chapter in Alexandria in 1845.[159] During the 19th and 20th century Ottoman Empire, Masonic lodges operated widely across all parts of the empire and numerous Sufi orders shared a close relationship with them. Many Young Turks affiliated with the Bektashi order were members and patrons of Freemasonry. They were also closely allied against European imperialism. Many Ottoman intellectuals believed that Sufism and Freemasonry shared close similarities in doctrines, spiritual outlook and mysticism.[160]
Schism
Racial schism
The relationship between English and French Freemasonry changed significantly during the formation of the United Grand Lodge of England in 1813. While the two jurisdictions maintained mutual recognition for several decades, events in the 1860s and 1870s led to a lasting division. In 1868, the Supreme Council of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of the State of Louisiana established itself within the jurisdiction of the Grand Lodge of Louisiana. This body, recognised by the Grand Orient de France but was considered irregular by the Grand Lodge of Louisiana because it admitted Black members. The following year, shocked by the Grand Lodge of Louisiana's discrimination practices, the Grand Orient de France clarified and cemented its positions by passing a resolution declaring that "neither colour, race, nor religion could disqualify a man from Masonry". This prompted the Grand Lodge of Louisiana to withdraw recognition and influenced other American Grand Lodges to do the same.[161]
Theological schism
A philosophical debate during the Lausanne Congress of Supreme Councils of 1875 led the Grand Orient de France to examine its foundational principles. Following a report by a Protestant pastor, they concluded that Freemasonry, not being a religion, should not require religious belief.[162] The Grand Orient revised its constitution to emphasise "absolute liberty of conscience and human solidarity", removing previous requirements regarding belief in the existence of God and the immortality of the soul. The United Grand Lodge of England subsequently withdrew recognition of the Grand Orient de France, possibly influenced by contemporary political tensions between France and Britain. This separation continues today.[68]
Evolution of styles
This philosophical development led to a diversification within French Freemasonry. In 1894, some lodges formed the Grande Loge de France, maintaining reference to the Great Architect of the Universe while preserving many French Masonic traditions, representing a middle path between Liberal and Anglo approaches.[163] By 1913, the United Grand Lodge of England established relations with the newly formed "Grande Loge Nationale Indépendante et Régulière pour la France et les Colonies Françaises," which aligned more closely with Conservative Masonic practices.[164][165]
This diversification allowed French Freemasonry to develop along multiple legitimate paths. The Grand Orient de France continued as a significant intellectual and progressive force in French society. Its Liberal emphasis on freedom of conscience and social progress has been particularly influential in the development of secular democratic values throughout Europe and beyond, while Conservative bodies maintained their own distinct approach to Masonic principles.
Modern Freemasonry encompasses three main approaches, which influence practice throughout Continental Europe:[166]
Liberal[167] (or adogmatic/progressive) – Emphasising liberty of conscience and laïcité, particularly regarding separation of Church and State.[168]
Traditional – Following established French practices while maintaining requirement for belief in a supreme being.[169] The Grande Loge de France exemplifies this approach.
Conservative[170] – Following Anglo-American practices with mandatory belief in supreme being.[171][172]
The term Continental Freemasonry historically described the diverse Masonic traditions that developed in Europe. While Albert Mackey's 1873 Encyclopedia of Freemasonry defined it from a Conservative perspective as lodges that "retain many usages which have either been abandoned by, or never were observed in, the Lodges of England, Ireland, and Scotland,"[173] a more balanced view recognizes that these represent distinct philosophical approaches to Masonic principles.
Today, Liberal Freemasonry encompasses traditions like the Grand Orient de France, which emphasizes freedom of conscience and social progress, as well as bodies like the Grande Loge de France that maintain some traditional elements while embracing certain Liberal principles. These organizations have played significant roles in the development of democratic ideals, human rights, and social reform throughout Europe and Latin America, representing a dynamic interpretation of Masonic principles focused on human advancement and the betterment of society.[174]
Different approaches to recognition and interaction between Masonic bodies emerged in the 20th century. In 1961, several Grand Lodges and Grand Orients established the Centre de Liaison et d'Information des Puissances maçonniques Signataires de l'Appel de Strasbourg (CLIPSAS), creating an international forum for Masonic cooperation. CLIPSAS membership includes over 100 Masonic organisations worldwide, encompassing traditional, liberal, and mixed-gender organisations.[175]
This development reflected different philosophical approaches to Masonic recognition. The United Grand Lodge of England maintains a policy of exclusive recognition based on specific criteria, including belief in a supreme being and male-only membership. In contrast, CLIPSAS member organisations generally practise open recognition, allowing interaction between diverse Masonic traditions.[176]
These differing approaches to recognition have led to distinct networks of Masonic interaction, often characterised as Conservative or Anglo-American and Liberal or Continental traditions, though this simplification does not fully capture the complexity of modern Masonic relationships.[177]
However, recent developments indicate shifting perspectives within Conservative Freemasonry regarding women's organisations. In 1999, the United Grand Lodge of England officially acknowledged both The Order of Women Freemasons and the Honourable Fraternity of Ancient Freemasons (Freemasonry for Women) as legitimate Masonic bodies. While not extending formal recognition, UGLE maintains "excellent working relationships" with both Grand Lodges and collaborates with them on various initiatives, including joint participation in Open House London events at Freemasons' Hall and university recruitment fairs.[178] This represents a significant evolution from earlier stricter positions and demonstrates increasing liberalisation and acceptance of diverse Masonic traditions.[179]
Additionally, in 2018, UGLE released guidance explicitly welcoming transgender members and affirming that "A Freemason who after initiation ceases to be a man does not cease to be a Freemason."[180]
The status of women in the old guilds and corporations of medieval masons remains uncertain. The principle of "femme sole" allowed a widow to continue the trade of her husband, but its application had wide local variations, such as full membership of a trade body or limited trade by deputation or approved members of that body.[181] In masonry, the small available evidence points to the less empowered end of the scale.[182]
At the dawn of the Grand Lodge era, during the 1720s, James Anderson composed the first printed constitutions for Freemasons, the basis for most subsequent constitutions, which specifically excluded women from Freemasonry.[183] As Freemasonry spread, women began to be added to the Lodges of Adoption by their husbands who were continental masons, which worked three degrees with the same names as the men's but different content. The French officially abandoned the experiment in the early 19th century.[184][185] Later organisations with a similar aim emerged in the United States but distinguished the names of the degrees from those of male masonry.[186]
Maria Deraismes was initiated into Freemasonry in 1882, then resigned to allow her lodge to rejoin their Grand Lodge. Having failed to achieve acceptance from any masonic governing body, she and Georges Martin started a mixed masonic lodge that worked masonic ritual.[187]Annie Besant spread the phenomenon to the English-speaking world.[188] Disagreements over ritual led to the formation of exclusively female bodies of Freemasons in England, which spread to other countries. Meanwhile, the French had re-invented Adoption as an all-female lodge in 1901, only to cast it aside again in 1935. The lodges, however, continued to meet, which gave rise, in 1959, to a body of women practising continental Freemasonry.[185]
In general, Continental Freemasonry is sympathetic to Freemasonry among women, dating from the 1890s when French lodges assisted the emergent co-masonic movement by promoting enough of their members to the 33rd degree of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite to allow them, in 1899, to form their own grand council, recognised by the other Continental Grand Councils of that Rite.[189] The United Grand Lodge of England issued a statement in 1999 recognising the two women's grand lodges there, The Order of Women Freemasons[190] and The Honourable Fraternity of Ancient Freemasons,[191] to be regular in all but the participants. While they were not, therefore, recognised as regular, they were part of Freemasonry "in general".[22][192] The attitude of most regular Anglo-American grand lodges remains that women Freemasons are not legitimate Masons.[193]
In 2018, guidance was released by the United Grand Lodge of England stating that, in regard to transgender women, "A Freemason who after initiation ceases to be a man does not cease to be a Freemason".[194] The guidance also states that transgender men are allowed to apply.[194]
Development and expansion
18th-century Enlightenment
Goose and Gridiron, where the Grand Lodge of London and Westminster, later called the Grand Lodge of England, was founded
During the Age of the Enlightenment in the 18th century, Freemasons comprised an international network of like-minded men, often meeting in secret in ritualistic programs at their lodges. They promoted the ideals of the Enlightenment and helped diffuse these values across Britain and France and other places. British Freemasonry offered a systematic creed with its own myths, values and set of rituals. It fostered new codes of conduct—including a communal understanding of liberty and equality inherited from guild sociability—"liberty, fraternity, and equality"[195] Scottish soldiers and Jacobite Scots brought to the Continent ideals of fraternity which reflected not the local system of Scottish customs but the institutions and ideals originating in the English Revolution against royal absolutism.[196] Freemasonry was particularly prevalent in France—by 1789, there were between 50,000 and 100,000 French Masons, making Freemasonry the most popular of all Enlightenment associations.[197]
Jacob argues that Masonic lodges probably had an effect on society as a whole, for they "reconstituted the polity and established a constitutional form of self-government, complete with constitutions and laws, elections and representatives". In other words, the micro-society set up within the lodges constituted a normative model for society as a whole. This was especially true on the Continent: when the first lodges began to appear in the 1730s, their embodiment of British values was often seen as threatening by state authorities. For example, the Parisian lodge that met in the mid-1720s was composed of English Jacobite exiles.[198] Furthermore, freemasons all across Europe made reference to the Enlightenment in general in the 18th century. In French lodges, for example, the line "As the means to be enlightened I search for the enlightened" was a part of their initiation rites. British lodges assigned themselves the duty to "initiate the unenlightened". Many lodges praised the Grand Architect, the masonic terminology for the divine being who created a scientifically ordered universe.[199]
On the other hand, historian Robert Roswell Palmer noted that lodges operated separately and Masons politically did not act together as a group.[200] American historians note that Benjamin Franklin and George Washington were leading Masons, but the significance of freemasonry in the revolution is a topic of debate.[201] Daniel Roche contests freemasonry's claims for egalitarianism, writing that "the real equality of the lodges was elitist", only attracting men of similar social backgrounds.[202]
In long-term historical perspective, Norman Davies has argued that Freemasonry was a powerful force in Europe, from about 1700 to the twentieth century. It expanded rapidly during the Age of Enlightenment, reaching practically every country in Europe, as well as the European colonies in the New World and Asia. Davies states, "In the nineteenth century and beyond it would be strongly associated with the cause of Liberalism."[203] In Catholic lands it was anti-clerical and came under heavy attack from the Catholic Church. In the 20th century, it was suppressed by Fascist and Communist regimes. It was especially attractive to royalty, aristocrats and politicians and businessmen, as well as intellectuals, artists and political activists. Davies notes that prominent members included Montesquieu, Voltaire, Sir Robert Walpole, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Benjamin Franklin, and George Washington.[204] Steven Bullock notes that in the late 18th century, English lodges were headed by the Prince of Wales, Prussian lodges by king Frederick the Great, and French lodges by royal princes. Emperor Napoleon selected his own brother as the Grand Master of France.[205]
In the 18th century, liberal French politicians met together in Masonic lodges to develop some of the Enlightenment ideas that dominated the French Revolution of 1789.[206] Avner Halpern has traced French Freemasonry's major role in building France's first modern political party in 1901, the Radical Party. It used two Masonic devices: the "civil leadership model", which Freemasonry developed in late 19th century France, and the local Masonic congresses of the Grand Orient of France federations.[207]
Freemasons had been active in Russia in the 18th century, working to introduce Enlightenment ideals; however, they were increasingly suppressed by the government.[208] According to Ludwick Hass, Freemasonry was officially illegal in Tsarist Russia, but would later be introduced by exiles who returned after the 1905 revolution. These individuals had been active Masons in Paris, where lodges were politically active in the new Radical Party. In Russia, the Freemasons supported constitutional liberalism, and maintained ties with France while simplifying many of the ceremonial rituals. Their secret meetings became a centre of progressive ideals, attracting politicians and activists. The lodges initially supported World War I, promoting close ties with France. Alexander Kerensky was an important Masonic activist who came to political power with the overthrow of the tsars, in 1917. The organization collapsed as the Bolsheviks took power and was again outlawed.[209]
According to Adrian Lyttelton, in the early 20th century, Freemasonry was an influential but semi-secret force in Italian politics; with a strong presence among professionals and the middle class across Italy, its appeal spread to the leadership of the parliament, public administration, and the army. The two main organisations were the Grand Orient and the Grand Lodge of Italy. They had around 25,000 members in some 500 lodges. Freemasons typically espoused anticlericalism and promoted unification. The Catholic Church was a vigorous opponent of unification, and thus of the Freemasons; various national governments would repeatedly alternate and backpedal between the anticlerical side and the Church side.[210] Politically, they promoted Italian nationalism focused on unification and undermining the power of the Catholic Church. Freemasons took on the challenge of mobilizing the press, encouraging public opinion and the leading political parties in support of Italy's joining of the Allies of the First World War in 1914–1915. In 1919, they favoured a League of Nations to promote a new post-war, universal order based upon the peaceful coexistence of independent and democratic nations.[211] In the early 1920s, many of Mussolini's collaborators, especially the leaders in organizing the March on Rome, were Masons. The lodges hailed fascism as the saviour of Italy from Bolshevism; however, Mussolini decided he needed to come to terms with the Catholic Church, in the mid-1920s, outlawing Freemasonry.[212]
The Spanish government outlawed Freemasonry in its overseas empire in the mid-18th century, and energetically enforced the ban. Nevertheless, many Freemasons were active in planning and plotting for independence.[213] Leaders with Freemason membership included Grand Master Francisco de Miranda, José de San Martin, Simón Bolivar, Bernardo O'Higgins, and many others.[214] The movement was important after independence was achieved in the 1820s.[215] In Brazil, many prominent men were Freemasons, and they played a leading role in the abolition of slavery.[216]
The first lodge formed in China was the Amity Lodge which constituted at Canton in 1767. In 1875, District Grand Lodge of China split into two Districts, Northern China, and Hong Kong and South China. During the second world war, All Masonic activity in Hong Kong was brought to a halt due to the Japanese invasion. After 1949, when the new Chinese government (Communist) was established, some lodges moved to Hong Kong or closed due to lack of new candidates.[221] Freemasonry is currently outlawed by the Chinese Communist Party in mainland China. It is permitted in Hong Kong. Freemasonry survived on the island of Taiwan and the Grand Lodge of China is based in Taipei.[222]
Hong Kong
Royal Sussex Lodge No. 501 was the first lodge established in Victoria City of Hong Kong on 29 April 1844.
For the English Constitution, Provincial or District Grand Lodge name in Hong Kong Changed as following:[223]
1847–1866, Provincial Grand Lodge of China
1866–1875, District Grand Lodge of China
1875–1963, District Grand Lodge of Hong Kong and South China
1963–present, District Grand Lodge of Hong Kong and the Far East
For the Scottish Constitution, District Grand Lodge name in Hong Kong Changed as following:[223]
1905–1958, District Grand Lodge of Hong Kong and South China
1958–present, District Grand Lodge of the Far East
For the Irish Constitution, Provincial or District Grand Lodge name in Hong Kong Changed as following:[223]
1933–1938, District Grand Inspector
1938–1947, Grand Inspector
1947–1954, Grand Inspector for Hong Kong and China
1954–1967, Grand Inspector for Hong Kong, China and Malaya
1967–1988, Grand Inspector for the Far East
1988–present, Provincial Grand Lodge of the Far East
Now, there are 20 (English Constitution) lodges under the District Grand Lodge of Hong Kong and Far East, United Grand Lodge of England and meet at Zetland Hall, Hong Kong:[224]
Cathay Lodge No. 4373
Corinthian Lodge of Amoy No. 1806
Diocesan Schools Lodge of Hong Kong No. 10055
Foochow Lodge No. 1912
Harriers Lodge No. 9882
Hong Kong and Far East District Grand Stewards Lodge No. 9879
Anti-Masonry (alternatively called Anti-Freemasonry) has been defined as "opposition to Freemasonry",[225][226] but there is no homogeneous anti-Masonic movement. Anti-Masonry consists of widely differing criticisms from diverse (and often incompatible) groups who are hostile to Freemasonry in some form. Critics have included religious groups, political groups, and conspiracy theorists, in particular, those espousing Masonic conspiracy theories or the Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory. Certain prominent Anti-Masons, such as Nesta Helen Webster, exclusively criticized "Continental Masonry", while considering "Regular Masonry" to be an honourable association.[227]
There have been many disclosures and exposés dating as far back as the 18th century. These often lack context,[228] may be outdated for various reasons,[229] or could be outright hoaxes on the part of the author, as in the case of the Taxil hoax.[230]
Freemasonry Exposed - page 79 - an example of a 19th century exposé that, when taken out of context, is criticized by anti-Masons as describing violence towards a candidate
These hoaxes and exposés have often become the basis for criticism of Masonry, often religious or political in nature or are based on suspicion of corrupt conspiracy of some form. The political opposition that arose after the American "Morgan Affair" in 1826 gave rise to the term Anti-Masonry, which is still in use in America today, both by Masons in referring to their critics and as a self-descriptor by the critics themselves.[231]
Religious opposition
Freemasonry has attracted criticism from theocratic states and organised religions that believe it is in competition with religion or perceive the fraternity's views or practices as heterodox; it has also long been the target of conspiracy theories that assert Freemasonry to be an occult and evil power.[232]
Although members of various faiths cite objections, certain Christian denominations have had high-profile negative attitudes to Masonry, banning or discouraging their members from being Freemasons. The denomination with the longest history of objection to Freemasonry is the Catholic Church. The objections raised by the Catholic Church are based on the allegation that Masonry teaches a naturalistic deistic religion which is in conflict with Church doctrine.[233] More than 600 Papal pronouncements have been issued against Freemasonry.[234] The first was Pope Clement XII's In eminenti apostolatus, 28 April 1738; the most recent was Pope Francis in a letter by the Dicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith 13 November 2023.[235]
In 1983, the Church issued a new code of canon law. Unlike its predecessor, the 1983 Code of Canon Law did not explicitly name Masonic orders among the secret societies it condemns. It states: "A person who joins an association which plots against the Church is to be punished with a just penalty; one who promotes or takes office in such an association is to be punished with an interdict." This named omission of Masonic orders caused both Catholics and Freemasons to believe that the ban on Catholics becoming Freemasons may have been lifted, especially after the perceived liberalisation of Vatican II.[237] However, the matter was clarified when Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI), as the Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, issued a Declaration on Masonic Associations, which states: "...the Church's negative judgment in regard to Masonic association remains unchanged since their principles have always been considered irreconcilable with the doctrine of the Church and therefore membership in them remains forbidden. The faithful who enroll in Masonic associations are in a state of grave sin and may not receive Holy Communion."[238] In 2023, Pope Francis reaffirmed the ban on Catholics becoming Freemasons stating the "[...] irreconcilability between Catholic doctrine and Freemasonry [...]"[239] in response to Julito Cortes, Bishop ofDumanguete, who stated concerns over the growing number of Freemasons in the Philippines.[240] The renewed ban cited both the 1983 Code of Canon Law, as well as the Guidelines made by a Bishops Conference in 2003.[240][241] For its part, Freemasonry has never objected to Catholics joining their fraternity. Those Grand Lodges in amity with the United Grand Lodge of England deny the Church's claims, stating that "Freemasonry does not seek to replace a Mason's religion or provide a substitute for it."[22]
In contrast to Catholic allegations of rationalism and naturalism, Protestant objections are more likely to be based on allegations of mysticism, occultism, and even Satanism.[242][bettersourceneeded] Masonic scholar Albert Pike is often quoted (in some cases misquoted) by Protestant anti-Masons as an authority for the position of Masonry on these issues.[243][bettersourceneeded] However, Pike, although undoubtedly learned, was not a spokesman for Freemasonry and was also controversial among Freemasons in general. His writings represented his personal opinion only, and furthermore, an opinion grounded in the attitudes and understandings of late 19th century Southern Freemasonry of the US. Notably, his book carries in the preface a form of disclaimer from his own Grand Lodge. No one voice has ever spoken for the whole of Freemasonry.[244]
In 1993, the Southern Baptist Convention's Home Mission Board determined that some parts of freemasonry are incompatible with Christianity, while others are compatible, concluding that participation in freemasonry should be considered "a matter of personal conscience".[245] The topic of Freemasonry remains controversial within the convention. James L. Holly, president of Mission and Ministry to Men, published a three volume book series titled "The Southern Baptist Convention and Freemasonry", critiquing the report to the Southern Baptist Convention in addition to the influence of Gary Leazer, then Director of the Interfaith Witness Department of the North American Mission Board.[246] Gary Leazer published "Fundamentalism and Freemasonry", arguing that the convention's discussion of Freemasonry was influenced by Southern Baptist Convention conservative resurgence.
Free Methodist Church founder B.T. Roberts was a vocal opponent of Freemasonry in the mid 19th century. Roberts opposed the society on moral grounds and stated, "The god of the lodge is not the God of the Bible." Roberts believed Freemasonry was a "mystery" or "alternate" religion and encouraged his church not to support ministers who were Freemasons. Freedom from secret societies is one of the "frees" upon which the Free Methodist Church was founded.[247]
Since the founding of Freemasonry, many Bishops of the Church of England have been Freemasons, including ArchbishopGeoffrey Fisher.[248] In the past, few members of the Church of England would have seen any incongruity in concurrently adhering to Anglican Christianity and practising Freemasonry. In recent decades, however, reservations about Freemasonry have increased within Anglicanism, perhaps due to the increasing prominence of the evangelical wing of the church. The former archbishop of Canterbury, Dr Rowan Williams, appeared to harbour some reservations about Masonic ritual, while being anxious to avoid causing offence to Freemasons inside and outside the Church of England. In 2003 he felt it necessary to apologise to British Freemasons after he said that their beliefs were incompatible with Christianity and that he had barred the appointment of Freemasons to senior posts in his diocese when he was Bishop of Monmouth.[249]
In 1933, the OrthodoxChurch of Greece officially declared that being a Freemason constitutes an act of apostasy and thus, until he repents, the person involved with Freemasonry cannot partake of the Eucharist. This has been generally affirmed throughout the whole Eastern Orthodox Church. The Orthodox critique of Freemasonry agrees with both the Catholic and Protestant versions: "Freemasonry cannot be at all compatible with Christianity as far as it is a secret organisation, acting and teaching in mystery and secret and deifying rationalism."[250]
Regular Freemasonry has traditionally not responded to these claims, beyond the often-repeated statement that Freemasonry explicitly adheres to the principle that "Freemasonry is not a religion, nor a substitute for religion. There is no separate 'Masonic deity,' and there is no separate proper name for a deity in Freemasonry."[251]
Christian men, who were discouraged from joining the Freemasons by their Churches or who wanted a more religiocentric society, joined similar fraternal organisations, such as the Knights of Columbus and Knights of Peter Claver for Catholics, and the Royal Black Institution for Protestants,[252] although these fraternal organisations have been "organized in part on the style of and use many symbols of Freemasonry".[252]
Many Islamic anti-Masonic arguments are closely tied to antisemitic conspiracy theories, though other criticisms are made, such as linking Freemasonry to Al-Masih ad-Dajjal (the false Messiah in Islamic Scripture).[254][255]Syrian-Egyptian Islamic theologian Mūhammād Rashīd Ridâ (1865–1935) played the crucial role in leading the opposition to Freemasonry across the Islamic world during the early twentieth century.[256] Influenced by Rida, Islamic anti-Masons argue that Freemasonry promotes the interests of the Jews around the world and that one of its aims is to destroy the Al-Aqsa Mosque compound in order to rebuild the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem.[257] Through his popular pan-Islamic journal Al-Manar, Rashid Rida spread anti-Masonic ideas which would directly influence the Muslim Brotherhood and subsequent Islamist movements, such as Hamas.[258] In article 28 of its Covenant, Hamas states that Freemasonry, Rotary, and other similar groups "work in the interest of Zionism and according to its instructions ..."[259]
Several predominantly Muslim countries have banned Freemasonry within their borders, while others have not. Turkey and Morocco have established Grand Lodges,[260] while in countries such as Malaysia[261][262] and Lebanon,[263] there are District Grand Lodges operating under a warrant from an established Grand Lodge. In 1972, in Pakistan, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, then Prime Minister of Pakistan, placed a ban on Freemasonry. Lodge buildings were confiscated by the government.[264]
Masonic lodges existed in Iraq as early as 1917, when the first lodge under the United Grand Lodge of England (UGLE) was opened. Nine lodges under UGLE existed by the 1950s, and a Scottish lodge was formed in 1923. However, the position changed following the revolution, and all lodges were forced to close in 1965.[265] This position was later reinforced under Saddam Hussein; the death penalty was "prescribed" for those who "promote or acclaim Zionist principles, including freemasonry, or who associate [themselves] with Zionist organisations."[254]
In 1799, English Freemasonry almost came to a halt due to Parliamentary proclamation. In the wake of the French Revolution, the Unlawful Societies Act banned any meetings of groups that required their members to take an oath or obligation.[266]
The Grand Masters of both the Moderns and the Antients Grand Lodges called on Prime Minister William Pitt (who was not a Freemason) and explained to him that Freemasonry was a supporter of the law and lawfully constituted authority and was much involved in charitable work. As a result, Freemasonry was specifically exempted from the terms of the Act, provided that each private lodge's Secretary placed with the local "Clerk of the Peace" a list of the members of his lodge once a year. This continued until 1967, when the obligation of the provision was rescinded by Parliament.[266]
Freemasonry in the United States faced political pressure following the 1826 kidnapping of William Morgan by Freemasons and his subsequent disappearance. Reports of the "Morgan Affair", together with opposition to Jacksonian democracy (Andrew Jackson was a prominent Mason), helped fuel an Anti-Masonic movement. The short-lived Anti-Masonic Party was formed, which fielded candidates for the presidential elections of 1828 and 1832.[267]
Lodge in Erlangen, Germany. First meeting after World War II with guests from US, France and Czechoslovakia, 1948.
In Italy, Freemasonry has become linked to a scandal concerning the Propaganda Due lodge (a.k.a. P2). This lodge was chartered by the Grande Oriente d'Italia in 1877, as a lodge for visiting Masons unable to attend their own lodges. Under Licio Gelli's leadership, in the late 1970s, P2 became involved in the financial scandals that nearly bankrupted the Vatican Bank. However, by this time the lodge was operating independently and irregularly, as the Grand Orient had revoked its charter and expelled Gelli in 1976.[268]
Conspiracy theorists have long associated Freemasonry with the New World Order and the Illuminati, and state that Freemasonry as an organisation is either bent on world domination or already secretly in control of world politics. Historically, Freemasonry has attracted criticism and suppression from both the politically far right (e.g., Nazi Germany)[269][270] and the far left (e.g., the former Communist states in Eastern Europe).[271]
Freemasonry is viewed with distrust even in some modern democracies.[272] In the UK, Masons working in the justice system, such as judges and police officers, were required to disclose their membership from 1999 to 2009.[273] While a parliamentary inquiry found that there had been no evidence of wrongdoing, the government believed that Masons' potential loyalties to support fellow Masons should be transparent to the public.[272][273][274] The policy of requiring a declaration of masonic membership by applicants for judicial office (judges and magistrates) was ended in 2009 by Justice SecretaryJack Straw (who had initiated the requirement in the 1990s). Straw stated that the rule was considered disproportionate since no impropriety or malpractice had been shown as a result of judges being Freemasons.[275]
Freemasonry is both successful and controversial in France. As of the early 21st century, membership is rising, but reporting of it in popular media is often negative.[272]
In some countries, anti-Masonry is often related to antisemitism and anti-Zionism. For example, in 1980, the Iraqi legal and penal code was changed by Saddam Hussein's ruling Ba'ath Party, making it a felony to "promote or acclaim Zionist principles, including Freemasonry, or who associate [themselves] with Zionist organisations".[254] Professor Andrew Prescott of the University of Sheffield writes: "Since at least the time of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, antisemitism has gone hand in hand with anti-masonry, so it is not surprising that allegations that 11 September was a Zionist plot have been accompanied by suggestions that the attacks were inspired by a masonic world order".[276]
The preserved records of the Reichssicherheitshauptamt (the Reich Security Main Office) show the persecution of Freemasons during the Holocaust.[277] RSHA Amt VII (Written Records), overseen by Professor Franz Six, was responsible for "ideological" tasks, by which was meant the creation of antisemitic and anti-Masonic propaganda. While the number of victims is not accurately known, historians estimate that between 80,000 and 200,000 Freemasons were killed under the Nazi regime.[278] Masonic concentration camp inmates were classified as political prisoners and wore an inverted red triangle.[279] Hitler believed Freemasons had succumbed to Jews conspiring against Germany.[280][281]
The forget-me-not flower was first used by the Grand Lodge Zur Sonne in 1926, as a Masonic emblem at the annual convention in Bremen, Germany. In 1938, a forget-me-not badge, made by the same factory as the Masonic badge, was chosen for the Nazi Party's Winterhilfswerk, the annual charity drive of the National Socialist People's Welfare (the welfare branch of the Nazi party). This coincidence enabled Freemasons to wear the forget-me-not badge as a secret sign of membership.[282][283][284]
After World War II, the forget-me-not flower was used again as a Masonic emblem in 1948 at the first Annual Convention of the United Grand Lodges of Germany in 1948. The badge is now sometimes worn in the coat lapel by Freemasons around the world to remember all who suffered in the name of Freemasonry, especially those during the Nazi era.[285]
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↑ for example, see David Murray Lyon, History of the lodge of Edinburgh, Blackwood, Edinburgh, 1873, pp. 121–123
↑ Anderson, James (1734) [1723]. Paul Royster (ed.). The Constitutions of the Free-Masons (Philadelphiaed.). Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Benjamin Franklin. p.49. Archived from the original on 19 October 2013. Retrieved 12 August 2013. The Persons admitted Members of a Lodge must be good and true Men, free-born, and of mature and discreet Age, no Bondmen, no Women, no immoral or scandalous Men, but of good Report.
↑ Margaret C. Jacob's seminal work on Enlightenment freemasonry, Margaret C. Jacob, Living the Enlightenment: Free masonry and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Europe (Oxford University Press, 1991) p. 49.
↑ Margaret C. Jacob, "Polite worlds of Enlightenment", in Martin Fitzpatrick and Peter Jones, eds. The Enlightenment World (Routledge, 2004) pp. 272–287.
↑ Daniel Roche, France in the Enlightenment (Harvard U.P. 1998)) p. 436.
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↑ Steven C. Bullock, "Initiating the enlightenment?: recent scholarship on European freemasonry." Eighteenth-Century Life 20#1 (1996): 80–92. onlineArchived 17 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine
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↑ Avner Halpern, "Freemasonry and party building in late 19th-Century France." Modern & Contemporary France 10.2 (2002): 197–210.
↑ Douglas Smith, "Freemasonry and the public in eighteenth-century Russia." Eighteenth-century studies 29.1 (1995): 25–44.
↑ Ludwik Hass, "The Russian Masonic Movement in the Years 1906–1918." Acta Poloniae Historica 48 (1983): 95–131.
↑ Adrian Lyttelton, "An Old Church and a New State: Italian Anticlericalism 1876–1915." European Studies Review 13.2 (1983): 225–248.
↑ Fulvio Conti, "From Universalism to Nationalism: Italian Freemasonry and the Great War." Journal of Modern Italian Studies 20.5 (2015): 640–662.
↑ Martin Clark, Modern Italy 1871–1995 (1996) p. 254.
↑ Miriam Erickson, "Don José Rossi y Rubí and Spanish Freemasonry in the Revolutionary Atlantic, 1785–1798." Latin Americanist 63.1 (2019): 25–47.
↑ Karen Racine, "Freemasonry" in Michael S. Werner, ed. Encyclopedia of Mexico: History, Society, and Culture (Fitzroy Dearborn, 1997) 1:538–540.
↑ Bogdan and Snoek, eds., Handbook of Freemasonry (2014) pp. 439–440.
↑ Renata Ribeiro Francisco, "Os heróis maçônicos na historiografia da abolição em São Paulo" [Masonic heroes in the historiography of abolition in São Paulo] História da Historiografia (2020), 13#34 pp. 271–302.
↑ Karen Racine, "Freemasonry" in Michael S. Werner, ed. Encyclopedia of Mexico (1997) 1:538–540.
↑ Lillian Estelle Fisher, "Early Masonry in Mexico (1806–1828)." Southwestern Historical Quarterly 42.3 (1939): 198–214. onlineArchived 7 March 2023 at the Wayback Machine
↑ Watson Smith, "Influences from the United States on the Mexican Constitution of 1824." Arizona and the West 4.2 (1962): 113–126.
↑ de Hoyos, Arturo; S. Brent Morris (18 August 2002). "Leo Taxil Hoax–Bibliography". Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon. Archived from the original on 6 August 2011. Retrieved 7 July 2007. Lists many books which perpetuate Masonic ritual hoaxes.
↑ Pike, Albert; T. W. Hugo; Scottish Rite (Masonic order). Supreme Council of the Thirty-Third Degree for the Southern Jurisdiction (1950) [1871]. Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry. Washington, DC: House of the Temple. OCLC12870276. In preparing this work [Pike] has been about equally Author and Compiler. (p. iii.) ... The teachings of these Readings are not sacramental, so far as they go beyond the realm of Morality into those of other domains of Thought and Truth. The Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite uses the word "Dogma" in its true sense of doctrine, or teaching; and is not dogmatic in the odious sense of that term. Everyone is entirely free to reject and dissent from whatsoever herein may seem to him to be untrue or unsound (p. iv){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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↑ Francke, Karl Heinz; Ernst-Günther Geppert (1974). Die Freimaurer-Logen Deutschlands und deren Grosslogen 1737–1972 (in German) (Second rev.ed.). Bayreuth: Quatuor Coronati.Also in: Francke, Karl Heinz; Ernst-Günther Geppert (1988). Die Freimaurer-Logen Deutschlands und deren Grosslogen 1737–1985: Matrikel und Stammbuch; Nachschlagewerk über 248 Jahre Geschichte der Freimaurerei in Deutschland (in German). Bayreuth: Quatuor Coronati. ISBN978-3-925749-05-6. OCLC75446479.
Belton, John L., et al. Freemasonry in context: history, ritual, controversy (Lexington Books, 2004) online.
Berger, Joachim. "The great divide: Transatlantic brothering and masonic internationalism, c. 1870–c. 1930." Atlantic Studies 16.3 (2019): 405–422.
Dickie, John. The Craft: How the Freemasons Made the Modern World (PublicAffairs, 2020).
Fozdar, Vahid. "'That Grand Primeval and Fundamental Religion': The Transformation of Freemasonry into a British Imperial Cult." Journal of World History 22#3 (2011), pp.493–525. online
Hamill, John. The Craft: A History of English Freemasonry (1986)
Harland-Jacobs, Jessica L. Builders of Empire: Freemasons and British Imperialism, 1717–1927 (2007)
Hoffmann, Stefan-Ludwig. Freemasonry and German Civil Society, 1840–1918 (U of Michigan Press, 2007).
Jacob, Margaret C. Living the Enlightenment: Freemasonry and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Europe (1991)
Jacob, Margaret C. The Origins of Freemasonry: Facts and Fictions (U of Pennsylvania Press, 2007).
Jacob, Margaret, and Matthew Crow. "Freemasonry and the Enlightenment." in Handbook of Freemasonry (Brill, 2014) pp.100–116. online[usurped]
Loiselle, Kenneth. "Freemasonry and the Catholic Enlightenment in Eighteenth-Century France." Journal of Modern History 94.3 (2022): 499–536. online
Önnerfors, Andreas. Freemasonry: a very short introduction (Oxford University Press, 2017) excerpt.
Racine, Karen. "Freemasonry" in Michael S. Werner, ed. Encyclopedia of Mexico: History, Society, and Culture (Fitzroy Dearborn, 1997) 1:538–540.
Ridley, Jasper. The Freemasons (1999), wide-ranging global popular history.
Snoek Jan A.M. and Henrik Bogdan. "The History of Freemasonry: An Overview" in Bogdan and Snoek, eds. Handbook of Freemasonry (Brill, 2014) ch. 2 pp 13–32. online[usurped]
Stevenson, David. "Four Hundred Years of Freemasonry in Scotland." Scottish Historical Review, 90#230 (2011), pp.280–295. online
Stevenson, David. The First Freemasons. Scotland's Early Lodges and Their Members (1988)
Weisberger, R. William et al. Freemasonry on Both Sides of the Atlantic: Essays concerning the Craft in the British Isles, Europe, the United States, and Mexico (2002), 969 pp
Weisberger, R. William. Speculative Freemasonry and the Enlightenment: A Study of the Craft in London, Paris, Prague and Vienna (Columbia University Press, 1993) 243 pp.
United States
Bullock, Steven C. Revolutionary brotherhood: Freemasonry and the transformation of the American social order, 1730–1840 (UNC Press Books, 2011).
Formisano, Ronald P., and Kathleen Smith Kutolowski. "Antimasonry and Masonry: The Genesis of Protest, 1826–1827." American Quarterly 29.2 (1977): 139–165. online
Hackett, David G. That Religion in Which All Men Agree: Freemasonry in American Culture (U of California Press, 2015)
Hinks, Peter P. et al. All Men Free and Brethren: Essays on the History of African American Freemasonry (Cornell UP, 2013).
Kantrowitz, Stephen. "'Intended for the Better Government of Man': The Political History of African American Freemasonry in the Era of Emancipation." Journal of American History 96#4, (2010), pp.1001–1026. online.
Weisberger, R. William et al. Freemasonry on Both Sides of the Atlantic: Essays concerning the Craft in the British Isles, Europe, the United States, and Mexico (2002), 969pp
York, Neil L. "Freemasons and the American Revolution." Historian 55#2 (1993), pp.315–330. online
Historiography and memory
Jacob, Margaret. "The Radical Enlightenment and Freemasonry: where we are now." REHMLAC: Revista de Estudios Históricos de la Masonería Latinoamericana y Caribeña 1 (2013): 11–25.online.
The Constitutions of the Free-Masons (1734), James Anderson, Benjamin Franklin, Paul Royster. Hosted by the Libraries at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln
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