Luna language

Last updated
Luna
Northern Luba
Native to Democratic Republic of the Congo
Native speakers
(undated figure of 50,000) [1]
Language codes
ISO 639-3 luj
Glottolog luna1244
L.24 [2]

Luna (or Luna Inkongo) is a Bantu language of eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Assigned by Guthrie to a group called Songe (L.20), it is presumably one of the Luban languages established by Ahmed (1995), like most of the other Songe languages, though it was not specifically addressed. [3] Ruhlen (1987) agrees in placing it with the Luban languages.

Contents

Phonology

Luna consonants [4]
BilabialLabio-dentalAlveolarPostalveolar/PalatalVelar
PlosiveVoiceless p t k
Voiced b d g
Affricate t͡ʃ <c>
Fricative f s ʃ <x>
m n ŋ <ñ>
Semivowel j <y> w
Lateral l

/g/ is always prenasalized, and k is almost always palatalized. /p/ is realized as [Φ] if not following /m/.

Luna vowels [5]
FrontMidBack
Closeiu
Close-midɪ <ǐ>əo
Open-midɛ <e>ɔ <ô>
Openaɒ <ǒ>

Stress typically falls on the penultimate syllable.

Grammar

As is typical of Bantu languages, Luna utilizes a noun-class system defined by prefixes. The distal demonstrative 'that, yon' can be formed by adding the prefix yi- to the form. These are defined below:

Class prefixes
ClassSingularPluralRelative/pronominal singularRelative/pronominal pluralPossessive

singular

Possessive

plural

Demonstrative
1di-, bu-, bwa-, bo-, ku-ma-, ø-bu-, di-, ku-a--adio, -abu, -aku-aobobu, dedi, koku, aa
2ka-tu-ka-tu--ako-atukaka, totu
3ki-bi-ki-bi--akio-abiok(i)eki, bebi
4lu-, lo-, lwo-N-lu-i-, y-, yi--alu-ayololu, yei
5mu-mi-u- (before consonant), V̆- (before vowel)-au-ayoou, yei
6mwo-mie--au-ayo
7mu-, ø-ba-u- (before consonant), a- (before vowel)ba--anci, -enci (after i)-aboyou, baba
8ø-ø-i-, y-, yi--anci-aboyou, yei

Additionally, there are three locative/adverbial prefixes, these being ku- (at a place, motion towards something), mu- (motion into something, within something), and pa- (near to or on, approaching something).

Pronouns are prefixed to the front of a verb before the tense (except for objective form, which is placed directly before the verb root) and verb root. Possessive pronouns generally follow the noun they possess. They are as follows. [6]

Personal pronouns
PersonIndependentSubjectObjectNegatedPossessiveReflexive
1SGmemengu-, n-, m-ki--amenemikyemi
2SGoweu-ku-ku--ebemikyebe
3SGyeiu-, a-mu-ka--anci/-encimikyenci
1PLcocotu-katu--ecumikyecu
2PLnonunu-kanu--enumikyenu
3PLboboba-kaba--abomikyeabo

Ngu- is the first person singular subject prefix except before -di 'to be' (ndi 'I am') -bili 'to know' (mbili 'I know') and in the present tense progressive aspect of verbs, indicated by tana- (n-tana-nanga 'I am loving') and before object infixes. If there is an indirect and direct object, the indirect object is infixed in the object position and the direct object is moved to the end of the verb.The present and past progressive can also be expressed using the expressing -di mu + infinitive verb, literally to 'be in doing.' Relative pronouns are the same as subject pronouns when the subject, and moved to after the object pronoun when an object. (e. g. ngwakadya bukula 'I ate the flour' > bukula bunakadya 'the flour which I ate'). In relative clauses, ta- replaces the negative prefix.

n-kw-a-nanga

1SG.SUB-2SG.OBJ-PRES-love

n-kw-a-nanga

1SG.SUB-2SG.OBJ-PRES-love

I love you

Ma-la

NP1.PL-town

a-tw-aka-mona

NP1.PL.REL-1PL.SUB-PST.PRF-see

Ma-la a-tw-aka-mona

NP1.PL-town NP1.PL.REL-1PL.SUB-PST.PRF-see

The towns which we saw

Various tense, aspect, and mood (TAM) prefixes may be added to a verb to modify its meaning. [7] In the present progressive, past continuous, past perfective, past pluperfect, and simple future, the infinitive morpheme ku- must be placed before the first vowel of a vowel-initial verb, except for in -angata 'fetch' and -akala 'be'. In monosyllabic vowels, the first consonant and vowel (-VC) are repeated (e. g. -fwa 'die' > nfofwa 'I die', -ela 'throw' > ngwelela 'I throw') in the first person singular. If the root is not vowel-initial, the vowel -e- is inserted if the final syllable is -ya, and -o- is inserted in all other cases. The final vowel becomes -i in the hortative imperative. The prefix bi- indicates a meaning of 'so that, that, in order that' and the suffix -po 'please' 'is added to commands when addressing a superior.

Luna TAM prefixes
TAMPrefixExampleEnglish
Simple presenta-, VC- (monosyllabic)nwanangaI love
Present progressivetana-ntananangaI am loving
Past continuousama-namanangaI have loved (and am loving)
Recent past/present perfectapu-napunangaI have loved
Past perfectiveaka-nakanangaI loved
Past pluperfectakama-nakamanangaI had loved
Affirmative pasta-nanangaI did love
Simple futurena- (1SG naku-)nakunangaI will love
Definitive futurekye-nkyenangaI will love (at some definite time)
Conditionalxe-nxenangaI should, would love
Imperativeø-nangaLove (command)
Hortative-iAnangiLet him/her love

Additionally, complex verbs can be derived from simple verbs using prefixes.

Complex verbs
FormVerbExampleEnglish
Simple-xipakill
Reflexivedi--dixipakill oneself
Causative-sa-xipisacause to kill oneself
Relative-la-xipilakill for another
Reciprocal/Habitual-ñana-xipañanakill eachother, kill habitually
Stative-ka-xipakabe dead, in a killed state
ContinuousREDUPLICATED-xipa xipakeep on killing
Passive-bwa-xipibwabe killed

There are a few adverbs that affix directly onto the verb:

Adverbs
AdverbMeaningExample
be-please, used to soften commands,

slightly, softly in non-imperatives

bedipula ncibo 'kindly open the house for me'
ki-stilltukyananga 'we still love'
-poplease, if you pleasenamanangapo kantu ka sabanga 'I want a little bit of soap please'
mu- and bi-the state in which, howtebela mwencencayi 'behold how he works'

Cardinal numerals decline as both adjectives and simple numerals.

IndependentCardinalOrdinal
1kôci-mo~mwe-a buxi
2pende-bidi-amubidi
3exatu-satu-amusatu
4enei-nai-amunai
5etano-tano-amutano
6esambanu-sambomo-amusambomo
7sambwalisambwali-a sambwali
8yenanayenana-a yenana
9dibwadibwa-a dibwa
10iyomudisangi-a disangi

Related Research Articles

Comorian is the name given to a group of four Bantu languages spoken in the Comoro Islands, an archipelago in the southwestern Indian Ocean between Mozambique and Madagascar. It is named as one of the official languages of the Union of the Comoros in the Comorian constitution. Shimaore, one of the languages, is spoken on the disputed island of Mayotte, a French department claimed by Comoros.

Vaeakau-Taumako is a Polynesian language spoken in some of the Reef Islands as well as in the Taumako Islands in the Temotu province of Solomon Islands.

The Turkish copula is one of the more distinct features of Turkish grammar. In Turkish, copulas are called ek-eylem or ek-fiil ('suffix-verb'). Turkish is a highly agglutinative language and copulas are rendered as suffixes, albeit with a few exceptions.

The Nafsan language, also known as South Efate or Erakor, is a Southern Oceanic language spoken on the island of Efate in central Vanuatu. As of 2005, there are approximately 6,000 speakers who live in coastal villages from Pango to Eton. The language's grammar has been studied by Nick Thieberger, who has produced a book of stories and a dictionary of the language.

Tamambo, or Malo, is an Oceanic language spoken by 4,000 people on Malo and nearby islands in Vanuatu. It is one of the most conservative Southern Oceanic languages.

Apurinã, or Ipurina, is a Southern Maipurean language spoken by the Apurinã people of the Amazon basin. It has an active–stative syntax. Apurinã is a Portuguese word used to describe the Popikariwakori people and their language. Apurinã indigenous communities are predominantly found along the Purus River, in the Northwestern Amazon region in Brazil, in the Amazonas state. Its population is currently spread over twenty-seven different indigenous lands along the Purus River. with an estimated total population of 9,500 people. It is predicted, however, that fewer than 30% of the Apurinã population can speak the language fluently. A definite number of speakers cannot be firmly determined because of the regional scattered presence of its people. The spread of Apurinã speakers to different regions was initially caused by conflict or disease, which has consequently led natives to lose the ability to speak the language for lack of practice and also because of interactions with other communities.

Numbami is an Austronesian language spoken by about 200 people with ties to a single village in Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea. It is spoken in Siboma village, Paiawa ward, Morobe Rural LLG.

Yabem, or Jabêm, is an Austronesian language of Papua New Guinea.

Ughele is an Oceanic language spoken by about 1200 people on Rendova Island, located in the Western Province of the Solomon Islands.

Adang is a Papuan language spoken on the island of Alor in Indonesia. The language is agglutinative. The Hamap dialect is sometimes treated as a separate language; on the other hand, Kabola, which is sociolinguistically distinct, is sometimes included. Adang, Hamap, and Kabola are considered a dialect chain. Adang is endangered as fewer speakers raise their children in Adang, instead opting for Indonesian.

Kâte is a Papuan language spoken by about 6,000 people in the Finschhafen District of Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea. It is part of the Finisterre–Huon branch of the Trans–New Guinea language family. It was adopted for teaching and mission work among speakers of Papuan languages by the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Papua New Guinea in the early 1900s and at one time had as many as 80,000 second-language speakers.

Uyghur is a Turkic language spoken mostly in the west of China.

Tuparí is an indigenous language of Brazil. It is one of six Tupari languages of the Tupian language family. The Tuparí language, and its people, is located predominantly within the state of Rondônia, though speakers are also present in the state of Acre on the Terra Indıgena Rio Branco. There are roughly 350 speakers of this language, with the total number of members of this ethnic group being around 600.

Mav̋ea is an Oceanic language spoken on Mavea Island in Vanuatu, off the eastern coast of Espiritu Santo. It belongs to the North–Central Vanuatu linkage of Southern Oceanic. The total population of the island is approximately 172, with only 34 fluent speakers of the Mav̋ea language reported in 2008.

Mekeo is a language spoken in Papua New Guinea and had 19,000 speakers in 2003. It is an Oceanic language of the Papuan Tip Linkage. The two major villages that the language is spoken in are located in the Central Province of Papua New Guinea. These are named Ongofoina and Inauaisa. The language is also broken up into four dialects: East Mekeo ; Northwest Mekeo ; West Mekeo and North Mekeo. The standard dialect is East Mekeo. This main dialect is addressed throughout the article. In addition, there are at least two Mekeo-based pidgins.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Toʼabaita language</span> Malaita language of the Solomon Islands

Toʼabaita, also known as Toqabaqita, Toʼambaita, Malu and Maluʼu, is a language spoken by the people living at the north-western tip of Malaita Island, of South Eastern Solomon Islands. Toʼabaita is an Austronesian language.

Neveʻei, also known as Vinmavis, is an Oceanic language of central Malekula, Vanuatu. There are around 500 primary speakers of Neveʻei and about 750 speakers in total.

Lengo is a Southeast Solomonic language of Guadalcanal.

Turkmen grammar is the grammar of the Turkmen language, whose dialectal variants are spoken in Turkmenistan, Iran, Afghanistan, Russia, China, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and others. Turkmen grammar, as described in this article, is the grammar of standard Turkmen as spoken and written by Turkmen people in Turkmenistan.

The conjugation of Sardinian verbs are mainly divided according to infinitives into -are, -ere, and -ire verbs in north-central dialects for regular verbs, similar to the tripartite systems of Portuguese, Spanish, and Italian. In southern dialects, these infinitives above change to -ai, -i, and -iri, respectively. Irregular verbs also exist as well. Many Sardinian conjugated forms were similar and conservative phonologically to Classical Latin, although the number of tenses were greatly reduced and the remaining tenses rely on periphrasis.

References

  1. Luna at Ethnologue (8th ed., 1974). Note: Data may come from an earlier edition.
  2. Jouni Filip Maho, 2009. New Updated Guthrie List Online
  3. Nurse & Phillipson 2003
  4. Westcott 1923, p. 5.
  5. Westcott 1923, pp. 5–6.
  6. Westcott 1923, p. 19.
  7. Westcott 1923, p. 36-38.

Bibliography