Nebria brevicollis

Last updated

Nebria brevicollis
Nebria brevicollis01.jpg
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Arthropoda
Class:
Insecta
Order:
Coleoptera
Suborder:
Adephaga
Family:
Carabidae
Subfamily:
Nebriinae
Genus:
Nebria
Subgenus:
Nebria (Nebria)
Species:
N. brevicollis
Binomial name
Nebria brevicollis
(Fabricius, 1792)

Nebria brevicollis, belonging to the Carabidae family, is a ground beetle. With nearly 500 species and over 100 subspecies, N. brevicollis is the most diverse genus within the Nebriini tribe of ground beetles. Members of the genus occupy a wide range of habitats. [1] Nebria brevicollis is native to Europe and the Near East but has been introduced to the western United States [2] and Canada. [3] Its rapid expansion in North America is characteristic of an invasive species. [4] Due to the variation in habitat, their diet consists of small arthropods (less than 4 mm in length) including Collembola, Diptera, earthworms, mites, and spiders. [5]

Contents

Description

Nebria brevicollis has a dark brown body with reddish-brown tibiae, tarsi, palpi, and antennae. The pronotum features two lateral setae on each side and is densely punctuate across its base. [3]

This species is most abundant between October and December, then from January through mid-May. It is of modest size, ranging in length from 10–14 mm. It has two sets of wings, protected by a hard shell that is black or dark brown. Only a few beetles have functional flight muscles. [6] No sexual dimorphism has been observed between males and females. [7] They are active at night. [8]

Distribution and habitat

These beetles are plentiful across the globe. In Europe, it is found in nearly all countries and islands. [9]

In 2008, it was reported as introduced in western Oregon, United States, [2] where it has been found in highly disturbed sites as well as in native old-growth forest stands. It has also now been found in Washington state [10] and northern California, as well as in southern British Columbia, Canada. [3] The rapid expansion of Nebria brevicollis in North America has caused researchers to question whether it meets the criteria of an invasive species. The rate of detection, and the rapid range expansion into Oregon, are characteristics of an invasive species. [4] In addition, its presence has been documented extensively from Europe to North America and in diverse harsh environments from sea beaches to alpine caves. The ecological range these beetles exhibit is unrivaled by any other carabid species in Oregon. [1]

The primary habitat is the cover of shaded leaf litter in deciduous forests; however, it can also be found in disturbed habitat such as parks, gardens, and agricultural lands. In North America, it has found in the summits, forest and meadows of mountains (at over 1200 meters elevation). [10] Unlike other members of Nebria, this species avoids moist areas. [2]

Food resources

Nebria brevicollis is an opportunistic predator. It is also an omnivore and feeds at night. N. brevicollis has been known to feed on Mollusca, earthworms, and small insects. N. brevicollis has also been found to eat other types of beetles in both their larval and imaginal stages of their life cycle. [11] Additionally, N. brevicollis has been documented to eat different species of small flies, spiders, mites and earthworms. [12] It has also been observed that the total body length is an important constraint in choosing a food source. Most of the beetles prey is less than 4 mm in length. Competition for food between Nebria brevicollis and Pterostichus algidus has been hypothesized. Foraging behavior includes walking up and down grass stalks and wandering over lupine leaves. Given their ability to forage both horizontally and vertically across space, they expand their prey resource pool. [13]

Life history

Bimodal distribution representing the breeding patterns or Nebria brevicollis Bimodal geological.PNG
Bimodal distribution representing the breeding patterns or Nebria brevicollis

Nebria brevicollishas can be found throughout the year; however, it is the most active during the months of June, July, and August. N. brevicollis undergo an intense feeding period, after which they enter diapause. The beetle then emerges for mating in the fall months. During the winter, the larvae of N. brevicollis are active and are seen late in the winter to early spring.

Breeding is influenced by the quantity and quality of the food available. Egg production is influenced by the size of the beetle and diminishing food quantity prolongs the development of the larvae. [4] To rear the fittest offspring, it will avoid conditions of low food supply by following a bimodal breeding curve. It will engage in inactive periods, lasting five to six weeks, prior to a female laying her eggs. The breeding life of females is 27 days. Most eggs take 17 days to hatch. [7]

Research regarding the aggregation behavior of Harmonia axyridis , belonging to the same order as N. brevicollis, has demonstrated this social behavior to be advantageous in group living conditions. It can allow for interactivity between individuals, which can allow for further information transfer. Costs, such as increased competition for food, space, and reproduction, may be a consequence of aggregative behavior; however, the advantages associated with group living outweigh the costs for H. axyridis and likewise other beetles. [14]

Following diapause, the breeding season begins. Various theories have been brought forth concerning the diapause in N. brevicollis. It may allow beetles to avoid conditions of low food supply during the summer. [7] Conditions of low food supply can negatively influence both the number of eggs produced and the viability of the eggs.

Low feeding levels produce small beetles and thus unfavorable conditions during larval development. [15] Secondly, it is hypothesized that diapause allows for the development of the gonads. Fat reserves are depleted for gonad maturation. [7]

Physiology

Long and large wings protected by the strong exoskeleton of N. brevicollis Nebria-brevicollis-08-fws.jpg
Long and large wings protected by the strong exoskeleton of N. brevicollis

Flight

Despite possessing large wings, Nebria brevicollis has limited flight potential, consistent with many other ground beetles. While all beetles have flight muscles that work antagonistically – when one shortens, the other stretches – only a small percentage are functional. In addition, the beetles with flight potential have a short flight period. The arrested development of the flight muscles, causing the inability to fly, may be an evolutionary choice. Rather than investing energy into the building of flight muscles, these beetles use their energy for the metabolic costs of larval growth. [6]

Dispersers are individuals that are characterized by their ability to fly as a result of having functional flight muscles. Within the N. brevicollis species, dispersers have been observed to form under favorable laboratory condition. Beetles that were fed in excess and kept at an ideal temperature, always emerged with flight muscles. The development of flight muscles took three weeks. [6]

All beetles hatch with flight muscles. Whether the muscles become arrested or not depends on the amount of food available during larval development. Crowding, lack of food, and low temperatures will not produce dispersers. Physiologically, the breaking down of the flight muscles creates more room for the ovaries and the eggs within the abdomen of the beetle. [6]

Genetics

In a study published in 2012, researchers Ikeda, Nishikawa, and Sorta found evidence that the loss of flight within a species promotes beetle diversification. Using carrion beetles from the family Silphidae, researchers demonstrated higher genetic differentiation in flightless beetle species compared to flight-capable species. Flight ability can facilitate better mating and access to resources. However, the walking ability of N. brevicollis is high and does allow for the colonization of new habitats and exchange between local populations. [6] There is an energetic cost associated with the maintaining of the flight muscles. The evolutionary loss of flight muscles has allowed for beetles to invest energy into other organs, such as those essential for survival and reproduction. [7]

Within flightless species, researchers showed higher genetic differentiation compared to flight-capable species – a result of restricted gene flow between species. They further observed speciation rate within flightless populations to be higher than that of flight-capable ones. Thus, a higher number of genetically distinct lineages can be observed within flightless species. Flightless species is a common pattern among the different families of Coleoptera with Nebria brevicollis likely choosing to use its energy towards larval growth rather than the building of flight muscles. [6]

Associative learning

Studies have demonstrated associative learning in N. brevicollis, suggesting cognitive abilities that may increase fitness. The genotype, the physical and social environment, as well as the animal personality, influence one's interactions with the environment. Natural selection may act upon associative learning and personality traits, including boldness, aggressiveness, sociability, and exploratory tendencies. [5]

In 2012, researchers Sih and Del Guidice constructed a model for 'fast' individual cognitive styles and 'slow' individual cognitive styles. Higher expressions of a trait are thought to increase an individual's likelihood for reward or allow for more acquisition of the environment while, simultaneously, increasing one's risk at the cost of accuracy. [16] Greater exploratory behavior may be correlated with increased foraging success. [5] 'Slow' cognitive styles individuals make fewer mistakes; however, are slower to acquire reward and knowledge. [16]

Recent studies regarding N. brevicollis have questioned whether variation in personality traits and associative learning ability are related. The grain beetle Tenebrio molitor and the carabid beetle Pterostichus melanarius have been shown to possess learning ability. Due to the wide range of habitat and diet of N. brevicollis, it has been proposed that learning ability may be favored by natural selection within the species. Researchers demonstrated that N. brevicollis exhibit associative learning ability and demonstrated exploratory behavior as a personality trait of these ground-dwellers. [5]

Varying selection pressures within different habitats has been hypothesized as an explanation for the relationship between personality and cognition. Compared to beetles collected from less urbanized areas, those in urban areas show increased exploratory behavior. In laboratory settings, N. brevicollis females exhibited a large variation in associative learning ability. It is likely that associative learning abilities are specific to one beetle's personality rather than across species population. [5]

As an emerging field of interest, researchers plan to conduct further studies in which a wider range of learning assays are tested to understand the cognition-personality relationships of N. brevicollis.

Breeding and diapause

Nebria brevicollis engages in sporadic breeding, with active periods in the early summer followed by diapause, a period of suspended development. [7] When active, they build up their food reserves by feeding rapidly. Triggered by environmental cues, metabolic changes occur and the onset of diapause is brought on. [17] There is no locomotion activity and the animals do not feed. [7] In N. brevicollis, the onset of diapause is regulated by the fat content of the beetle's body. The period of diapause lasts 5 to 6 weeks during the months of July and August. Energy for body maintenance during this time is supplied by the large food reserves accumulated early in the summer. Groups of up to 80 beetles will aggregate together under stones or logs during a period of diapause. [7]

Predation

The abundance of beetles in Oregon may have deleterious effects on other carabid species. It is possible that the increase in prevalence of Nebria brevicollis is causing population declines within other carabid species. Increased competition for food between species may emerge, especially between species with similar diets and breeding practices. However, more research regarding the interactions between N. brevicollis and other carabid taxa must be conducted before concluding that negative impacts have occurred. [4]

Predation by N. brevicollis

Nebria brevicollis's predation of non-carabid species may also have deleterious effects. The Fender's blue butterfly is considered to be endangered. During the beetle's diapause, the butterflies are at increased risk of predation by N. brevicollis. Both species share similar habitats, as the occurrence of N. brevicollis has been found at sites where the butterflies exist. [4]

N. brevicollis has also been documented to kill, consume, and scavenge the slug Deroceras reticulatum . [18] Also known as the gray field slug, it is found in the Pacific Northwest and worldwide. [19] N. brevicollis killed more injured individuals than healthy individuals. However, there was a stronger preference in scavenging for dead slugs than those that were alive. Slugs produce mucus as a defense mechanism at the onset of a beetle attack. However, deceased slugs no longer produce mucus. They are therefore a more suitable prey, as they require a reduced handling time and a decreased energy investment. [18]

Nebria brevicollis at various stages of infection by Erynia nebriae Erynia nebriae.png
Nebria brevicollis at various stages of infection by Erynia nebriae

Predation of N. brevicollis

In north-western Germany, it was observed by researchers that an entomopathogenic fungus, Erynia nebriae was preying upon N. brevicollis [17] . Although Nebria brevicollis is widely considered to be solely carnivorous, multiple small studies have proven that Nebria brevicollis will resort to eating various types of fungi that can be found in the soil they live on/around. [20] The fungus then infects the beetle, which results in a swollen abdomen. Observation concluded that low temperatures neither killed nor impeded the epizootic of the fungus. While more research regarding the relationship between fungus and beetle must be conducted, it is possible that the fungus manipulates the behavior of the beetle to their advantage. However, the strong exoskeleton of most carabid species may serve as a defense mechanism against fungi predation. [17]

Use as a bioindicator

Composition of the soil on which Nebria brevicollis walks Nebria brevicollis fg01.jpg
Composition of the soil on which Nebria brevicollis walks

Ground beetles like Nebria brevicollis serve as effective bioindicators for studying environmental impacts of human activities. Alterations in habitat due to urbanization, pollution, and harmful land management practices can be studied through changes in ground beetle communities. [21] Possible effects environmental pollution may have on the habitat of the beetles includes changing soil pH, as well as altering its sodium and calcium content. Physiologically, pollution has been observed to cause physiological and behavioral changes. [21] Research has confirmed the property of the soil can shape carabid communities, including Nebria brevicollis. [22] Changes in species number or abundance can be correlated with habitat alterations caused by humans. Changes in the reproductive ability of ground-dwelling beetles may also serve to highlight the negative consequences of environmental pollution. More research must be conducted to solidify these correlations. [21]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Beetle</span> Order of insects

Beetles are insects that form the order Coleoptera, in the superorder Holometabola. Their front pair of wings are hardened into wing-cases, elytra, distinguishing them from most other insects. The Coleoptera, with about 400,000 described species, is the largest of all orders, constituting almost 40% of described insects and 25% of all known animal species; new species are discovered frequently, with estimates suggesting that there are between 0.9 and 2.1 million total species. Found in almost every habitat except the sea and the polar regions, they interact with their ecosystems in several ways: beetles often feed on plants and fungi, break down animal and plant debris, and eat other invertebrates. Some species are serious agricultural pests, such as the Colorado potato beetle, while others such as Coccinellidae eat aphids, scale insects, thrips, and other plant-sucking insects that damage crops. Some others also have unusual characteristics, such as fireflies, which use a light-emitting organ for mating and communication purposes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ground beetle</span> Family of beetles

Ground beetles are a large, cosmopolitan family of beetles, the Carabidae, with more than 40,000 species worldwide, around 2,000 of which are found in North America and 2,700 in Europe. As of 2015, it is one of the 10 most species-rich animal families. They belong to the Adephaga. Members of the family are primarily carnivorous, but some members are herbivorous or omnivorous.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Adephaga</span> Suborder of beetles

The Adephaga are a suborder of beetles, and with more than 40,000 recorded species in 10 families, the second-largest of the four beetle suborders. Members of this suborder are collectively known as adephagans. The largest family is Carabidae which comprises most of the suborder with over 40,000 species. Adephaga also includes a variety of aquatic beetles, such as predaceous diving beetles and whirligig beetles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Harpalinae</span> Subfamily of insects in the Ground beetle family (Carabidae)

Harpalinae is the largest subfamily of ground beetles, containing more than 19,000 species worldwide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diapause</span> Response delay in animal dormancy

In animal dormancy, diapause is the delay in development in response to regular and recurring periods of adverse environmental conditions. It is a physiological state with very specific initiating and inhibiting conditions. The mechanism is a means of surviving predictable, unfavorable environmental conditions, such as temperature extremes, drought, or reduced food availability. Diapause is observed in all the life stages of arthropods, especially insects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fender's blue butterfly</span> Endangered subspecies of Boisduvals blue

Fender's blue butterfly is a subspecies of Boisduval's blue endemic to the Willamette Valley of northwestern Oregon, United States. The potential range of the butterfly extends from south and west of Portland, OR to south of Eugene, OR. The butterfly is host-specific on the Kincaid's lupine, which it relies on for reproduction and growth. The male and female can be identified by their difference in wing color. The Fender's Blue Butterfly was added to the endangered species list in January 2000, but as of February of 2023, has been reclassified as "threatened". The Fender's blue butterfly population has increased over the past 20 years and projected to increase more through conservation efforts. In Willamette Valley, Oregon, there are currently 90 sites filled with Fender's blue.

<i>Neocicindela tuberculata</i> Species of beetle

Neocicindela tuberculata is a species of tiger beetle in the family Cicindelidae, endemic to New Zealand. Its common names include common tiger beetle, moeone, and papapa, and in its larval stage penny doctor, butcher boy, kapuku, kui, kurikuri, moeone, and muremure. Neocicindela tuberculata was the first carabid beetle described from New Zealand. The species can run as fast as 5 miles per hour and are considered to be the fastest running beetles. Adult species prefer clay banks in summer and are good predators when in comes to insects.

<i>Deroceras reticulatum</i> Species of gastropod

Deroceras reticulatum, common names the "grey field slug", "grey garden slug", and "milky slug", is a species of small air-breathing land slug, a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusc in the family Agriolimacidae. This species is an important agricultural pest.

<i>Broscus cephalotes</i> Species of beetle

Broscus cephalotes is a species of nocturnal, coastal ground beetle found throughout most of Europe. Its range spans from western Europe into western Siberia. The species was introduced recently in the eastern areas of Canada and has spread farther south and west into the United States. As a member of the family Carabidae, Broscus cephalotes is generally considered beneficial to humans due to its predatory habits. Their varied diet often includes crop pests and other small organisms.

<i>Epomis</i> Subgenus of beetles

Epomis is a subgenus of ground beetle genus Chlaenius. The larvae of this subgenus are notable for being obligate role-reversal predators. Amphibians such as frogs are normally predators of beetles; however, Epomis larvae feed exclusively on amphibians.

<i>Megadromus antarcticus</i> Species of beetle

Megadromus antarcticus, also known as the “Alexander beetle”, is a member of the Carabidae family and only found in the Canterbury region of New Zealand. Megadromus antarcticus are easily recognized by their iridescent green colouration.

<i>Pterostichus melanarius</i> Species of ground beetle

Pterostichus melanarius, the Rain Beetle, is a type of carabid of the genus Coleoptera. It is native to Europe but is increasingly found in North America after being introduced to the region in the 1920s. It is a predatory beetle that eats invertebrate pests, which makes it a valuable pest control agent in agricultural settings. Additionally, the beetle has wing dimorphism which has contributed to its increasing distribution across North America.

<i>Anisodactylus binotatus</i> Species of beetle

Anisodactylus binotatus is a species of ground beetle native to Europe. It was discovered as being introduced to Canterbury, New Zealand in 1938. Anisodactylus binotatus is a species of Carabidae, also known as the ground beetle family. Although this species of beetle has no official recorded common names, literature from England refers to it as the common shortspur beetle.

Listronotus oregonensis, the carrot weevil, is a species of weevil in the beetle family Curculionidae. It is found in North America.

Rhadine caudata is a species of beetle native to the eastern United States. It is a brachypterous habitat specialist, occurring in only two of five forest classes in a North Carolina study. R. caudata is a considered a Vulnerable species at the global level on NatureServe, Imperiled in Alabama, and Vulnerable in Virginia.

<i>Calleida viridipennis</i> Species of ground beetle

The Calleida viridipennis is a species of ground beetle belonging to the Carabidae family, and are referred to as carabid beetles. It is found in various states, including New York, New Mexico, Louisiana, and Florida. Habitat preferences include forests and swamps. C. virdipennis is a particular carabid beetle that is, on average, 10 mm long. Recognizable by a green-black metallic exoskeleton, it has a trapezoidal head shape. Its large eyes are also characteristic of the species. Below the exoskeleton reside functional wings, giving the beetle flight capacity.

<i>Galerita lecontei</i> Species of beetle

Galerita lecontei, the false bombardier beetle, is a species of ground beetle in the family Carabidae. It is found in the Caribbean Sea, Central America, North America, and the Caribbean. They are primarily characterized by their dark coloration, rapid movement, lifespan longevity, and nocturnal hunting behavior. Their elytra, which are the hardened forewings provide protection for their hind wings and exhibit a glossy texture. Many species within this family can secrete harmful chemicals as a defense mechanism against predators. Furthermore, this species has evolved various predator deterrents, often in the form of dischargeable glands near their abdominal area, a common feature across several beetle families, including Carabidae, Dytiscidae, and Gyrinidae.

Pterostichus algidus is a species of woodland ground beetle in the family Carabidae. It is found in North America.

<i>Mecodema howitti</i> Species of beetle

Mecodema howitti, termed the Large Banks Peninsula ground beetle, is a carnivorous forest ground beetle in the genus Mecodema. It is endemic to Banks Peninsula, Canterbury, New Zealand, and is the largest of the 16 carabids found in the area.

Agra guatemalena is a species of carabid beetle. The holotype was collected in Costa Rica and first described to science in 1932 by Ernő Csíki.

References

  1. 1 2 Kavanaugh, David H.; et al. (16 June 2021). "Phylogeny of the supertribe Nebriitae (Coleoptera, Carabidae) based on analyses of DNA sequence data". ZooKeys (1044): 41–152. Bibcode:2021ZooK.1044...41K. doi: 10.3897/zookeys.1044.62245 . PMC   8222211 . PMID   34183875.
  2. 1 2 3 Kavanaugh, David H.; LaBonte, James R. "Discovery of Nebria brevicollis (Fabricius) (Coleoptera: Carabidae: Nebriini), a European Ground Beetle, Established in the Willamette Valley, Oregon" (PDF). Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences. 59 (9): 481–488. Retrieved 19 November 2023.
  3. 1 2 3 McGregor, Robert R.; Goulet, Henri; LaBonte, James R. (18 December 2020). "First western Canadian records of Nebria brevicollis (Coleoptera: Carabidae) and establishment of populations in Coquitlam, British Columbia, Canada". The Canadian Entomologist. 153 (2): 237–243. doi:10.4039/tce.2020.72. ISSN   0008-347X. S2CID   232233993.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 LaBonte, James R. (16 November 2011). "Nebria brevicollis (Fabricius, 1792) in North America, benign or malign? (Coleoptera, Carabidae, Nebriini)". ZooKeys (147): 497–543. Bibcode:2011ZooK..147..527L. doi: 10.3897/zookeys.147.2119 . PMC   3286253 . PMID   22371674.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 Harris, Ciaran; Liedtke, Jannis; Drees, Claudia; Schuett, Wiebke (1 November 2020). "Exploratory behaviour is not related to associative learning ability in the carabid beetle Nebria brevicollis". Behavioural Processes. 180: 104224. doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2020.104224. ISSN   0376-6357. PMID   32828809. S2CID   221198469.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Nelemans, M. N. E. (1 July 1987). "Possibilities for flight in the carabid beetle Nebria brevicollis (F.)". Oecologia. 72 (4): 502–509. Bibcode:1987Oecol..72..502N. doi:10.1007/BF00378974. ISSN   1432-1939. PMID   28312510. S2CID   20103414.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Penney, Margaret M. (1966). "Studies on Certain Aspects of the Ecology of Nebria brevicollis (F.) (Coleoptera, Carabidae)". Journal of Animal Ecology. 35 (3): 505–523. Bibcode:1966JAnEc..35..505P. doi:10.2307/2488. JSTOR   2488 – via JSTOR.
  8. ↑ Harris, Ciaran; Liedtke, Jannis; Drees, Claudia; Schuett, Wiebke (1 November 2020). "Exploratory behaviour is not related to associative learning ability in the carabid beetle Nebria brevicollis". Behavioural Processes. 180: 104224. doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2020.104224. ISSN   0376-6357. PMID   32828809. S2CID   221198469.
  9. ↑ "Nebria (Nebria) brevicollis (Fabricius, 1792)". 2.6.2. Fauna Europaea. 29 August 2013. Archived from the original on 13 November 2013. Retrieved 13 November 2013.
  10. 1 2 LaBonte, James (16 November 2011). "Nebria brevicollis (Fabricius, 1792) in North America, benign or malign? (Coleoptera, Carabidae, Nebriini)". ZooKeys (147): 527–543. Bibcode:2011ZooK..147..527L. doi: 10.3897/zookeys.147.2119 . ISSN   1313-2970. PMC   3286253 . PMID   22371674.
  11. ↑ Crowley, Liam (12 January 2023). "The genome sequence of a ground beetle, Nebria brevicollis (Fabricius, 1792)". Wellcome Open Research. 8: 20. doi: 10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18749.1 . PMC   10521042 . PMID   37766846.
  12. ↑ Penney, Margaret M. (1966). "Studies on Certain Aspects of the Ecology of Nebria brevicollis (F.) (Coleoptera, Carabidae)". Journal of Animal Ecology. 35 (3): 505–512. Bibcode:1966JAnEc..35..505P. doi:10.2307/2488. ISSN   0021-8790. JSTOR   2488 . Retrieved 20 March 2024.
  13. ↑ LaBonte, James R. (16 November 2011). "Nebria brevicollis (Fabricius, 1792) in North America, benign or malign? (Coleoptera, Carabidae, Nebriini)". ZooKeys (147): 497–543. Bibcode:2011ZooK..147..527L. doi: 10.3897/zookeys.147.2119 . ISSN   1313-2989. PMC   3286253 . PMID   22371674.
  14. ↑ Durieux, Delphine; Fassotte, Bérénice; Deneubourg, Jean-Louis; Brostaux, Yves; Vandereycken, Axel; Joie, Emilie; Haubruge, Eric; Verheggen, François J (2015). "Aggregation behavior of Harmonia axyridis under non-wintering conditions". Insect Science. 22 (5): 670–678. Bibcode:2015InsSc..22..670D. doi:10.1111/1744-7917.12144. PMID   24889907. S2CID   1954451 – via PubMed.
  15. ↑ Nelemans, M.N.E. (1986). "On the Life-History of the Carabid Beetle Nebria Brevicollis (F.)". Netherlands Journal of Zoology. 37 (1): 26–42. doi:10.1163/002829687X00026.
  16. 1 2 Sih, Andrew; Del Giudice, Marco (5 October 2012). "Linking behavioural syndromes and cognition: a behavioural ecology perspective". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 367 (1603): 2762–2772. doi:10.1098/rstb.2012.0216. ISSN   0962-8436. PMC   3427552 . PMID   22927575.
  17. 1 2 3 Keller, Siegfried; Hülsewig, Thorben (5 January 2018). "Amended description and new combination for Entomophthora nebriae Raunkiaer, (1893), a little known entomopathogenic fungus attacking the ground beetle Nebria brevicollis (Fabricius, 1792)". Alpine Entomology. 2: 1–5. doi: 10.3897/alpento.2.22136 . ISSN   2535-0889.
  18. 1 2 Mair, J.; Port, G. R. (May 2001). "Predation by the carabid beetles Pterostichus madidus and Nebria brevicollis is affected by size and condition of the prey slug Deroceras reticulatum". Agricultural and Forest Entomology. 3 (2): 99–106. doi:10.1046/j.1461-9563.2001.00093.x. ISSN   1461-9555. S2CID   84793192.
  19. ↑ "Biology and Life Cycle of the Gray Field Slug". agsci.oregonstate.edu. 18 January 2016. Retrieved 26 February 2024.
  20. ↑ "Nebria brevicollis (Fabricius, 1792)". www.gbif.org (in Arabic). Retrieved 26 February 2024.
  21. 1 2 3 Avgin, Sakine Serap; Luff, Martin Leslie (2010). "Ground beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae) as bioindicators of human impact". Munis Entomology & Zoology. 5 (1): 209–215.
  22. ↑ Vician, Vladimír; Svitok, Marek; Michalková, Eva; Lukáčik, Ivan; Stašiov, Slavomír (1 August 2018). "Influence of tree species and soil properties on ground beetle (Coleoptera: Carabidae) communities". Acta Oecologica. 91: 120–126. Bibcode:2018AcO....91..120V. doi:10.1016/j.actao.2018.07.005. ISSN   1146-609X. S2CID   92140437.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.