Second language writing

Last updated

Second language writing is the study of writing performed by non-native speakers/writers of a language as a second or foreign language. According to Oxford University, second language writing is the expression of one's actions and what one wants to say in writing in a language other than one's native language. Learning a new language and writing in it is the most challenging thing. Learning a new language first requires an understanding of the writing system and the grammar of the language. Because grammar is the basis of writing. Learning the grammar of a language is the only way to write in that language. The extent to which non-native speakers write in formal or specialized domains, and the requirements for grammatical accuracy and compositional coherence, will vary according to the specific context. The process of second language writing has been an area of research in applied linguistics and second language acquisition theory since the middle of the 20th century. The focus has been mainly on second-language writing in academic settings. In the last few years, there has been a great deal of interest in and research on informal writing. These informal writings include writing in online contexts. In terms of instructional practices, the focus of second language writing instruction has traditionally been on achieving grammatical accuracy. However, this changed under the influence of compositional studies, which focused on conceptual and structural properties. Another development in the teaching of second language writing is the increasing use of models and the emphasis on the properties of particular writing genres. Recent research has analyzed how second-language writing differs from native-language writing, emphasizing the cultural factors that influence second-language writers. In general, second language acquisition research has transitioned from a primary focus on cognitive factors to a sociocultural perspective in which writing is viewed not only as an acquired language skill and cognitive ability but also, more broadly, as a socially situated communicative act involving a target audience. Recently, particular attention has been paid to the integration of written texts with other media (multimodality) and to the mixing of languages in online media.

Contents

Fountain pen writing (literacy).jpg

History

Before the 1960s, the focus of English language teaching was on producing or preparing graduates of ESL schools who successfully can pass citizenship tests to be able to work. During industrialization, the most needed skills were reading and speaking skills. Although immigrants struggled with writing in their second language, it was not the necessary skill needed by industrialization at that time. [1] Scholars at that time, mostly phoneticians, argued that spoken language should be placed over the written language and phonetics should serve as the basis for language learning. [2]

Based on Skinnerian Behaviorism (1957), the audio-lingual method came about in language teaching after World War II. The audio-lingual method was initially focused on teaching speaking skills. [3] According to Leki (1992), writing was taught in ESL classes as a component of second language teaching. However, writing does not mean “to create, to express ideas, to synthesize information, to explore thoughts”. [1] Even US higher education institutions had to send international students to high schools to be prepared until they met university academic writing demands because universities did not have any courses for preparing L2 students for preparing to meet the right language proficiency levels needed to function at US universities. [4]

In the U.S., writing received greater attention after a large number of students enrollment in the US universities in the 1960s. This meant that not only teaching reading and speaking skills were important as they were needed for working during the industrialization, but teaching a language required also writing as international students could function in American universities. During this period, postsecondary institutions could no longer ignore the difficulties L2 writers faced as the number of international students increased 4 times more in 1950 compared to 1940 and all freshman students had to take first year composition courses. Specialists had to design courses for L2 writers that were considered as remedial courses in some universities while other institutions credited these courses. To solve the challenges L2 writers encounter, both "composition teachers" and "ESL teachers" attended the meeting organized by Conference on College Composition and Communication (CCCC) established in 1949 as a forum for specialists in the field of composition. Specialists and educators discussed the materials that needed to be used for teaching L2 writing instruction, and ESL specialists suggested using materials designed by Michigan English Language Institute (ELI). Michigan ELI was the first language teaching institution founded to teach English to Spanish language speakers, and the institute also provided courses for teaching ESL. [2] Second language writing issues were considered both by composition and ESL teachers at the conference. [2]

After Michigan ELI and other institutions started preparing ESL teaching specialists, second language teachers argued that second language learners should be taught only by ESL specialists. Also, in 1966, Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL), a new organization was established to serve L2 specialists' needs. As a result, composition studies acquired two components: “L1” and “L2 writing” that lead to the establishment of second language writing as a separate discipline that falls under TESOL. [2]

Perspectives and theories

Second language writing development has been investigated from many different perspectives. Manchón's edited book on L2 Writing Development: Multiple Perspectives provides an insight in which perspective second language writing development can be investigated. Her edited books includes studies on L2 writing development from dynamic systems theory, goal theory, genre-based systemic functional linguistics, and rhetorical genre theory. [5]

Second language writing development has been most extensively investigated by traditional cross-sectional methodologies such as pre-test post-test designs.

However, in the early 2000s a novel angle has emerged called dynamical systems theory approach on second language development. Studies adopting the DST perspective explore interactions between different constructs such as lexicon, syntax, and accuracy by using moving correlations. The degree of variability in the constructs is usually explored by min-max graphs, data resampling and Monte Carlo Analysis. Among the researchers who have adopted this new angle are Verspoor, de Bot, and Lowie. These researchers used a time-series data to investigate development in second language writing. [6]

Symposium on Second Language Writing

The Symposium on Second Language Writing, which began in 1998 at Purdue University, is an international conference on second language writing. It was a biennial event through 2006, and annual after that. It has been hosted at Purdue University six times, but the 2007 symposium was held in Japan; the 2009 at Arizona State University, the 2010 in Murcia, Spain; the 2011 in Taipei, Taiwan; and the 2013 will be held at Shandong University, Jinan, China. [7]

At TESOL, Inc.

In June 2005, the TESOL Board added of a new interest section on writing. The Second Language Writing IS; it held its first meeting in Tampa in March 2006, covering topics ranging from "Broadening Perspectives in Second Language Writing" and "Alternative Placement Methods for Second Language Writers" to "Issues in Technologies for L2 Composition Classrooms" and "Crossing Bridges with Second Language Writing Partnerships."

As these suggest, the section provides a forum for researchers and educators at different grade levels and institutional settings to discuss second language writing. Specifically, the section's goals are:

The section facilitates communication about writing across teaching levels and settings. Recent research on the scope of second language writing scholarship suggests that most of the field's nationally (within the U.S.) and internationally circulated scholarship is produced by scholars in post-secondary education at research intensive institutions. Other contexts for writing (Pre-K through 12, two-year colleges, community programs, international K-12 schools, etc.) often have much larger populations of ELL/EFL writers, but scholars, particularly teacher-researchers, in these settings do not often receive support for researching and writing.

Given this, the section provides scholars with the opportunity to initiate more research and scholarship in these underrepresented contexts by supporting new collaborations and partnerships across levels and by providing a forum for discussing shared experiences. The section, like its parent body, TESOL, is distinctive in including all the academic levels and areas.

Second Language Writing Transfer (L2) Theory

Some notable scholars in the field of Second Language (L2) writing transfer include Mark Andrew James and GitaDasBender. First, Depalma and Ringer (2011) define how L2 writing transfer was only defined as individuals reusing previous writing knowledge from one context to another in a second language context. [9] In particular, there are two examples outlined by James (2018b) of when L2 writing transfer may occur. [10] First, it possibly occurs when students are taught a certain organizational structure to follow in one ESL writing classroom and possibly utilize this structure in another one. [10] Second, it can "occur" when teachers teach L2 writers certain steps on writing and revising essays and L2 writers may incorporate these "steps" on future assignments. [10] However, DePalma and Ringer (2011) advocate for the concept of adaptive transfer where L2 writers might "consciously" readapt or reuse previous writing knowledge from one context to another giving L2 writers more "agency" over their writing. [9] It is important to note that Grujicic-Alatriste (2013) critiques their piece because she states that people have to possibly factor in the overall classroom experience to determine how much adaptive transfer has occurred. [11] James (2018b) notes that previous L2 experiences could affect L2 writing in newer situations as he highlights that helping students understand the similarities between writing contexts could help the transfer process. [10] However, he mentions that transfer does not always occur and instructors have to reflect on lessons that give L2 writers the motivation to engage in L2 writing transfer. [10] Thus, the goal of L2 writing education is to encourage positive transfer even though transfer between languages are often portrayed in a negative context and may discourage it (James, 2018a). [12]

James (2009) discusses how ESL writing classrooms in universities play a major role, consciously or unconsciously, in helping students learn things that they also use in other classes. [13] Cui (2019) argues that further studies need to be conducted on how "first-year L2 writers in US universities transfer writing knowledge". [14] DasBender (2016) discusses how these L2 first-year writers face a lot of "different expectations" that they are expected to meet because "different colleges and writing classrooms are going to handle the needs of these writers". [15] This is reinforced by James (2009) who states that there is a significant difference in the types of writing that are produced in ESL writing courses compared to other kinds of writing in other academic disciplines in US universities. [13]

Thus, Gita DasBender mentions that the previous experiences of three writers may impede their efforts to conform to first-year writing standards even those geared towards ESL writers. [15] For example, she notes that a good number of L2 writers have to deal with another language like English to communicate and are not as familiar with analysis. [15] Therefore, she indicates that teachers can review concepts that are difficult for L2 writers including organization, audience awareness, and genres in order to help them master and learn more about their writing. [15] Furthermore, she notes that teachers can give these writers reflection activities to help these students ponder what previous writing experiences they have through to help build metacognition because she is unsure if students would even attempt to do so without motivation from teachers. [15]

At the Conference on College Composition and Communication

Second language writing scholars also participate in a Special Interest Group on the field at the Conference on College Composition and Communication (CCCC). [16] In addition, the organization has a Committee on Second Language Writing to bridge work between CCCC and TESOL to involve more scholars in the field's discussions.

Much recent attention focuses on the potential of computer-mediated communication (CMC) to foster desire and opportunity to write.

In addition, attention has been focused on the practical application of teaching Second Language writing not only in academia but in the field.

Notable researchers

The following is a list of researchers who contributed to the field of second language writing research.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">English as a second or foreign language</span> Use of English by speakers with different native languages

English as a second or foreign language is the use of English by speakers with different native languages. Language education for people learning English may be known as English as a second language (ESL), English as a foreign language (EFL), English as an additional language (EAL), English as a New Language (ENL), or English for speakers of other languages (ESOL). The aspect in which ESL is taught is referred to as teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL), teaching English as a second language (TESL) or teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL). Technically, TEFL refers to English language teaching in a country where English is not the official language, TESL refers to teaching English to non-native English speakers in a native English-speaking country and TESOL covers both. In practice, however, each of these terms tends to be used more generically across the full field. TEFL is more widely used in the UK and TESL or TESOL in the US.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Composition studies</span>

Composition studies is the professional field of writing, research, and instruction, focusing especially on writing at the college level in the United States.

Contrastive rhetoric is the study of how a person's first language and his or her culture influence writing in a second language or how a common language is used among different cultures. The term was first coined by the American applied linguist Robert Kaplan in 1966 to denote eclecticism and subsequent growth of collective knowledge in certain languages. It was widely expanded from 1996 to today by Finnish-born, US-based applied linguist Ulla Connor, among others. Since its inception the area of study has had a significant impact on the exploration of intercultural discourse structures that extend beyond the target language's native forms of discourse organization. The field brought attention to cultural and associated linguistic habits in expression of English language.

Cognitive science and linguistic theory have played an important role in providing empirical research into the writing process and serving the teaching of composition. As for composition theories, there is some dispute concerning the appropriateness of tying these two schools of thought together into one theory of composition. However, their empirical basis for research and ties to the process theory of composition and cognitive science can be thought to warrant some connection.

NNEST or non-native English-speaking teachers is an acronym that refers to the growing body of English language teachers who speak English as a foreign or second language. The term was coined to highlight the dichotomy between native English-speaking teachers (NEST) and non-native English-speaking teachers (NNEST).


A significant construct in language learning research, identity is defined as "how a person understands his or her relationship to the world, how that relationship is structured across time and space, and how the person understands possibilities for the future". Recognizing language as a social practice, identity highlights how language constructs and is constructed by a variety of relationships. Because of the diverse positions from which language learners can participate in social life, identity is theorized as multiple, subject to change, and a site of struggle.

A dialogue journal is an ongoing written interaction between two people to exchange experiences, ideas, knowledge or reflections. It is used most often in education as a means of sustained written interaction between students and teachers at all education levels. It can be used to promote second language learning and learning in all areas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Translingualism</span>

Translingual phenomena are words and other aspects of language that are relevant in more than one language. Thus "translingual" may mean "existing in multiple languages" or "having the same meaning in many languages"; and sometimes "containing words of multiple languages" or "operating between different languages". Translingualism is the phenomenon of translingually relevant aspects of language; a translingualism is an instance thereof. The word comes from trans-, meaning "across", and lingual, meaning "having to do with languages (tongues)"; thus, it means "across tongues", that is, "across languages". Internationalisms offer many examples of translingual vocabulary. For example, international scientific vocabulary comprises thousands of translingual words and combining forms.

TESOL Quarterly is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal published by Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of TESOL International Association. It covers English language teaching and learning, standard English as a second dialect, including articles on the psychology and sociology of language learning and teaching, professional preparation, curriculum development, and testing and evaluation. The editors-in-chief are Charlene Polio and Peter De Costa, both at Michigan State University. TESOL also publishes TESOL Journal.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kathleen Blake Yancey</span>

Kathleen Blake Yancey is the Kellogg W. Hunt Professor of English at Florida State University in the rhetoric and composition program. Her research interests include composition studies, writing knowledge, creative non-fiction, and writing assessment.

Vocabulary learning is the process acquiring building blocks in second language acquisition Restrepo Ramos (2015). The impact of vocabulary on proficiency in second language performance "has become […] an object of considerable interest among researchers, teachers, and materials developers". From being a "neglected aspect of language learning" vocabulary gained recognition in the literature and reclaimed its position in teaching. Educators shifted their attention from accuracy to fluency by moving from the Grammar translation method to communicative approaches to teaching. As a result, incidental vocabulary teaching and learning became one of the two major types of teaching programs along with the deliberate approach.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marjolijn Verspoor</span> Dutch linguist

Marjolijn Verspoor is a Dutch linguist. She is a professor of English language and English as a second language at the University of Groningen, Netherlands. She is known for her work on Complex Dynamic Systems Theory and the application of dynamical systems theory to study second language development. Her interest is also in second language writing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diane Larsen-Freeman</span> American linguist

Diane Larsen-Freeman is an American linguist. She is currently a Professor Emerita in Education and in Linguistics at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, Michigan. An applied linguist, known for her work in second language acquisition, English as a second or foreign language, language teaching methods, teacher education, and English grammar, she is renowned for her work on the complex/dynamic systems approach to second language development.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kees de Bot</span> Dutch linguist

Cornelis Kees de Bot is a Dutch linguist. He is currently the chair of applied linguistics at the University of Groningen, Netherlands, and at the University of Pannonia. He is known for his work on second language development and the use of dynamical systems theory to study second language development.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rosa Manchón</span> Spanish linguist

Rosa María Manchón Ruiz is a Spanish linguist. She is currently a professor of applied linguistics at the University of Murcia, Spain. Her research focuses on second language acquisition and second language writing. She was the editor of the Journal of Second Language Writing between 2008 and 2014.

Scott Andrew Crossley is an American linguist. He is a professor of applied linguistics at Vanderbilt University, United States. His research focuses on natural language processing and the application of computational tools and machine learning algorithms in learning analytics including second language acquisition, second language writing, and readability. His main interest area is the development and use of natural language processing tools in assessing writing quality and text difficulty.

Alison Mackey is a linguist who specializes in applied linguistics, second language acquisition and research methodology. She is currently a professor in the Department of Linguistics at Georgetown University. Her research focuses on applied linguistics and research methods.

The Sydney School is a genre-based writing pedagogy that analyses literacy levels of students. The Sydney School's pedagogy broadened the traditional observation-based writing in primary schools to encompass a spectrum of different genres of text types that are appropriate to various discourses and include fiction and non-fiction. The method and practice of teaching established by the Sydney School encourages corrective and supportive feedback in the education of writing practices for students, particularly regarding second language students. The Sydney School works to reflectively institutionalise a pedagogy that is established to be conducive to students of lower socio-economic backgrounds, indigenous students and migrants lacking a strong English literacy basis. The functional linguists who designed the genre-based pedagogy of the Sydney School did so from a semantic perspective to teach through patterns of meaning and emphasised the importance of the acquisition of a holistic literacy in various text types or genres. ‘Sydney School’ is not however an entirely accurate moniker as the pedagogy has evolved beyond metropolitan Sydney universities to being adopted nationally and, by 2000, was exported to centres in Hong Kong, Singapore, and parts of Britain.

Jenny Hammond is an Australian linguist. She is known for her research on literacy development, classroom interaction, and socio-cultural and systemic functional theories of language and learning in English as an Additional Language or dialect (EAL/D) education. Over the course of her career, Hammond's research has had a significant impact on the literacy development of first and second language learners, on the role of classroom talk in constructing curriculum knowledge and on policy developments for EAL education in Australia. She is an Honorary Associate Professor in the School of Education, University of Technology Sydney.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kata Csizér</span> Hungarian linguist

Kata Csizér is a Hungarian linguist. She is currently a professor at the School of English and American Studies of the Faculty of Humanities of the Eötvös Loránd University, Hungary. Her research focuses on applied linguistics with a special focus on motivation in second-language learning and teaching students with special needs.

References

  1. 1 2 Leki, Ilona. Understanding ESL writers: A guide for teachers. Boynton/Cook.
  2. 1 2 3 4 Matsuda, Paul Kei (2003-04-14), "Second language writing in the twentieth century: A situated historical perspective", Exploring the Dynamics of Second Language Writing, Cambridge University Press, pp. 15–34, doi:10.1017/cbo9781139524810.004, ISBN   9780521822923 , retrieved 2022-11-01
  3. ↑ C., Fries, Charles (1945). Teaching and learning English as a foreign language. Univ. of Michigan Press. OCLC   463162795.
  4. ↑ Hammill, M. J. (2014). Second language writing in intensive English programs and first year composition. Arizona State University.
  5. ↑ Manchón, Rosa (8 April 2019). Manchón, Rosa (ed.). L2 Writing Development: Multiple Perspectives. De Gruyter Mouton. doi:10.1515/9781934078303. ISBN   9781934078303 – via DeGruyter.
  6. ↑ Lowie, W. M.; Bot, K. de; Verspoor, M. H. (2004). "Dynamic systems theory and variation: a case study in L2-writing". Words in Their Places. A Festschrift for J. Lachlan. Amsterdam: Free University Press: 407–421.
  7. ↑ Symposium on Second Language Writing. (n.d.). Retrieved October 5, 2008, from http://sslw.asu.edu/
  8. ↑ Second Language Writing Interest Section. (n.d.). Retrieved October 5, 2008, from http://secondlanguagewriting.com/slwis/
  9. 1 2 DePalma, M. J., & Ringer, J. M. (2011). Toward a theory of adaptive transfer: Expanding disciplinary discussions of “ transfer” in second-language writing and composition studies. Journal of Second Language Writing, 20(2), 134–147.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 James, M. A. (2018b). Transfer. In J. I. Lionas (Ed.), The TESOL encyclopedia of English language teaching (pp. 1–5). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
  11. ↑ Grujicic-Alatriste, L. (2013). A response to DePalma and Ringer's article “Toward a theory of adaptive transfer: Expanding disciplinary discussions of ‘transfer’ in second-language writing and composition studies.” Journal of Second Language Writing, 22, 460–464. doi : 10.1016/j.jslw.2013.04.002
  12. ↑ James, M. A. (2018a). Teaching for transfer of second language learning. Language Teaching, 51(3), 330–348. doi : 10.1017/S0261444818000137
  13. 1 2 James, M. A. (2009). "Far" transfer of learning outcomes from an ESL writing course: Can the gap be bridged? Journal of Second Language Writing, 18(2), 69-84. doi : 10.1016/j.jslw.2009.01.001
  14. ↑ Cui, W. (2019). Teaching for transfer to first-year L2 writers. Journal of International Students, 9(4), 1115–1133. doi : 10.32674/jis.v9i4.755
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 DasBender, G. (2016). Liminal space as a generative site of struggle: Writing transfer and L2 students. In C. M. Anson & J. L. Moore (Eds.), Critical Transitions: Writing and the Question of Transfer (pp. 273–298). University Press of Colorado.
  16. ↑ "Conference on College Composition and Communication" . Retrieved 20 January 2015.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.