American ginseng | |
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Panax quinquefolius [1] | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Eudicots |
Clade: | Asterids |
Order: | Apiales |
Family: | Araliaceae |
Genus: | Panax |
Subgenus: | Panax subg. Panax |
Species: | P. quinquefolius |
Binomial name | |
Panax quinquefolius | |
Synonyms [5] | |
Homotypic synonyms
Heterotypic synonyms
|
American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) is a species of flowering plant in the ivy family Araliaceae. It is native to eastern North America and has been introduced into China. The specific epithet quinquefolius means "five-leaved", which refers to the typical number of leaflets per leaf. It is one of a group of taxa known as "ginseng".
Europeans first became aware of American ginseng near Montreal in 1716. It has been wild-harvested and exported to Asia since 1720. Billions of plants were wild-harvested in the 19th century alone. To control international trade and prevent global extinction of the species, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service implements a CITES Export Program that authorizes 19 states and one tribe to export American ginseng from the United States. From 1978 to 2019, the bulk of exports have come from southern Appalachian states, especially Kentucky, West Virginia, and Tennessee.
The conservation status of American ginseng is globally vulnerable. It is imperiled or critically imperiled in 14 states and provinces. In Canada, the species is endangered and facing imminent extinction.
As wild populations declined in the late 19th century, American ginseng became a domesticated crop. It is cultivated primarily in Ontario, Wisconsin, British Columbia, and China. Canada is the largest producer and exporter of cultivated American ginseng in the world. It is the state herb of Wisconsin.
Panax quinquefolius is a herbaceous perennial plant. Its aromatic root resembles a small parsnip that forks as it matures. The plant grows 6 to 18 in (15 to 46 cm) tall, usually bearing three compound leaves (sometimes called "prongs"), each with three to five leaflets, 2 to 5 in (5 to 13 cm) long.
Panax quinquefolius is sometimes confused with wild sarsaparilla ( Aralia nudicaulis ), another member of the ivy family (Araliaceae). The two species may be distinguished by their leaves. Panax quinquefolius has palmately compound leaves (with leaflets radiating from a single point) while Aralia nudicaulis has pinnately compound leaves (with leaflets arranged on either side of a central stalk). [6]
Like Asian ginseng ( Panax ginseng ), American ginseng contains dammarane-type ginsenosides, or saponins, as the major biologically active constituents. Dammarane-type ginsenosides include two classifications: 20(S)-protopanaxadiol (PPD) and 20(S)-protopanaxatriol (PPT). American ginseng contains high levels of Rb1, Rd (PPD classification), and Re (PPT classification) ginsenosides—higher than that of P. ginseng in one study. [7]
When taken orally, PPD-type ginsenosides are mostly metabolized by intestinal bacteria (anaerobes) to PPD monoglucoside, 20-O-beta-D-glucopyranosyl-20(S)-protopanaxadiol (M1). [8] In humans, M1 is detected in plasma starting seven hours after intake of PPD-type ginsenosides and in urine starting 12 hours after intake. These findings indicate M1 is the final metabolite of PPD-type ginsenosides. [9]
M1 is referred to in some articles as IH-901, [10] and in others as compound-K. [9]
Panax quinquefolius was described as Aureliana canadensis by the French ethnologist and naturalist Joseph-François Lafitau in 1718. [11] [12] As a Jesuit missionary in New France, Lafitau discovered ginseng near Montreal in 1716. [13] [14] In his search for a specimen, Father Lafitau enlisted the help of the Iroquois by showing them a published botanical illustration of gin-seng, [15] a Chinese name for a plant now known as Panax ginseng . [16] The Iroquois referred to American ginseng as garent-oguen, which means "resembles man" or "a man's thigh" in Iroquoian language.
Aureliana canadensis was further described by the English naturalist Mark Catesby in 1747. [17] Catesby published a striking color illustration of a live specimen transplanted from Pennsylvania to the garden of English botanist Peter Collinson in Peckham. [18] Aureliana canadensisLafitau ex Catesby is an invalid name since it was published prior to 1 May 1753 (Art.13.1 ICN 2018). [19]
The Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus validly described Panax quinquefolium in 1753, [4] [20] but the name was later corrected to Panax quinquefolius.[ citation needed ] Linnaeus placed Aureliana canadensisLafitau ex Catesby in synonymy with Panax quinquefolius, citing both Lafitau [1718] and Catesby [1747]. Its type specimen, designated in 1991, was reportedly collected by Pehr Kalm near Quebec in 1749. [21] The specific epithet quinquefolius means "five-leaved", [22] which refers to the typical number of leaflets per leaf.
The name ginseng derives from the Chinese herbalism term, jen-shen. [23] Other Chinese names are huaqishen (simplified Chinese :花旗参; traditional Chinese :花旗參; pinyin :huāqíshēn; Cantonese Yale :fākèihsām; lit.' Flower Flag ginseng') or xiyangshen (simplified Chinese:西洋参; traditional Chinese:西洋參; pinyin:xīyángshēn; Cantonese Yale:sāiyèuhngsām; lit.'west ocean ginseng').
The word "panax" is derived from the Greek 'Panakos' (panacea), in reference to the various benefits attributed to the herb. [24]
Panax quinquefolius is native to eastern United States and southeastern Canada. [25] [26] [27] [28] It is found primarily in the Appalachian and Ozark mountains of the United States where it prefers full shade environments in deciduous hardwood forests. [2] [29] It is introduced and cultivated in the following Chinese provinces: Guizhou, Heilongjiang, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Jilin, and Liaoning. [30]
Panax quinquefolius is a summer flowering plant. In New England, flower buds and leaves emerge simultaneously around the middle of June, with flowers eventually appearing in July. Fruits mature to a deep red color by early September. The seeds exhibit a type of dormancy called morphophysiological dormancy, sometimes called "double dormancy", which requires two full winters to completely break dormancy. Germination finally takes place eighteen months after the fruit initially ripened. [31]
Europeans discovered ginseng near Montreal in 1716. [16] By 1720, ginseng from Quebec was exported to China by the Company of the Indies, a French trading company. [32] Within a few decades, ginseng populations near Montreal were suffering from overharvesting and habitat destruction, and so the wild-harvesting of ginseng began to spread south. [33] By the end of the 18th century, Albany, New York had become a trading center for ginseng. In the United States, 13.7 million kilograms of wild ginseng root were exported between 1821 and 1899, [34] with an average of about 1.7 million kilograms per decade.
Pounds | Kilograms | Metric tons | |
---|---|---|---|
1821–29 | 3,871,765 | 1,756,203 | 1,756 |
1830–39 | 3,192,375 | 1,448,036 | 1,448 |
1840–49 | 3,915,129 | 1,775,872 | 1,776 |
1850–59 | 1,999,999 | 907,184 | 907 |
1860–69 | 4,149,445 | 1,882,156 | 1,882 |
1870–79 | 4,041,727 | 1,833,296 | 1,833 |
1880–89 | 6,771,830 | 3,071,650 | 3,072 |
1890–99 | 2,163,302 | 981,257 | 981 |
Total | 30,105,572 | 13,655,654 | 13,656 |
Average per decade | 3,763,196 | 1,706,957 | 1,707 |
More than 290,000 kilograms of dry ginseng roots were exported from the United States (U.S.) in 1841. It is estimated that this represents at least 64 million roots. [35] By extrapolation, more than 3 billion roots (and therefore plants) were wild-harvested in the U.S. between 1821 and 1899.
During the twentieth century, exports of wild ginseng from the U.S. were about half of what they were during the previous century, averaging about 580,000 kilograms per decade. [36] Between 2000 and 2020, U.S. exports of wild ginseng dropped to approximately 250,000 kilograms per decade.
Pounds | Kilograms | Metric tons | |
---|---|---|---|
1980–89 | 1,034,539 | 469,259 | 469 |
1990–99 | 1,158,203 | 525,352 | 525 |
2000–09 | 648,632 | 294,215 | 294 |
2010–19 | 560,290 | 254,143 | 254 |
Total | 3,401,664 | 1,542,969 | 1,542 |
Average per decade | 850,416 | 385,742 | 385 |
The steady decline in export volume is likely the result of declining wild populations.
To control international trade, Panax quinquefolius is listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). [37] CITES Appendix II includes species that, although currently not threatened with global extinction, may become so without trade controls. As of September 2022 [update] , nineteen (19) states and one tribe are authorized to export American ginseng from the United States. [38] The following table lists the states and tribe with an approved CITES export permit for American ginseng (each state's NatureServe conservation status is shown in parentheses): [39]
Pounds | Kilograms | Metric tons | |
---|---|---|---|
Kentucky (S3) | 715,973 | 324,760 | 324.8 |
West Virginia (S3S4) | 526,327 | 238,738 | 238.7 |
Tennessee (S3S4) | 487,830 | 221,276 | 221.3 |
North Carolina (S3S4) | 304,397 | 138,072 | 138.1 |
Indiana (S3) | 299,009 | 135,628 | 135.6 |
Virginia (S3S4) | 295,880 | 134,209 | 134.2 |
New York (S4) | 249,903 | 113,354 | 113.4 |
Ohio (S4) | 241,569 | 109,574 | 109.6 |
Illinois (S3?) | 173,731 | 78,803 | 78.8 |
Wisconsin (S4) | 102,830 | 46,643 | 46.6 |
Missouri (S4) | 85,478 | 38,772 | 38.8 |
Arkansas (S4) | 79,009 | 35,838 | 35.8 |
Pennsylvania (S4) | 57,640 | 26,145 | 26.1 |
Minnesota (S3) | 51,403 | 23,316 | 23.3 |
Iowa (S3) | 42,402 | 19,233 | 19.2 |
Alabama (S4) | 23,916 | 10,848 | 10.8 |
Georgia (S3) | 23,166 | 10,508 | 10.5 |
Maryland (S2S3) | 8,781 | 3,983 | 4.0 |
Vermont (S3) | 6,334 | 2,873 | 2.9 |
Menominee Nation (?) | 996 | 452 | 0.5 |
Total | 3,776,574 | 1,713,025 | 1,713 |
From 1978 to 2019, 1,713,025 kilograms of wild and wild-simulated ginseng roots were legally exported from the United States. During this period, the bulk of exports came from southern Appalachian states including Kentucky, West Virginia, Tennessee, and North Carolina. Of these, eastern Kentucky has consistently large harvests, apparently a result of habitat abundance, very high levels of rural poverty, and a very strong local tradition of ginseng collecting. [40] American ginseng also grows wild in a number of states that do not permit export, including Connecticut (S2), Delaware (S2), Kansas (S1), Maine (S3), Massachusetts (S3), Michigan (S2S3), Nebraska (S1), New Hampshire (S2), New Jersey (S2), Oklahoma (S1), Rhode Island (S1), and South Carolina (S4). [41]
As determined by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada, the conservation status of Panax quinquefolius is Endangered (E) in Canada. [42] In Ontario and Quebec, it is listed as Endangered and Threatened, respectively. [43] Both provincial designations refer to a species facing imminent extinction or extirpation. Consequently, the harvesting, possession, and export of wild American Ginseng in Canada is prohibited.
As of February 2024 [update] , the NatureServe conservation status of Panax quinquefolius is globally vulnerable (G3G4). [2] It is vulnerable (S3) in 14 states; imperiled (S2) in 8 states and provinces; critically imperiled (S1) in 6 states; and possibly extirpated (SH) in the District of Columbia.
In addition to (or in lieu of) the NatureServe conservation status (in parentheses below), some states designate their own conservation status:
Panax quinquefolius is apparently secure (S4) in New York and Pennsylvania (as shown above), as well as Alabama, Arkansas, Missouri, Ohio, South Carolina, and Wisconsin.
American ginseng was formerly particularly widespread in the Appalachian and Ozark regions (and adjacent forested regions such as Pennsylvania, New York and Ontario). Due to its popularity and unique habitat requirements, the wild plant has been overharvested, as well as lost through destruction of its habitat, and is thus rare in most parts of the United States and Canada. [60] [61] Ginseng is also negatively affected by deer browsing, urbanization, and habitat fragmentation. [62] Today the greatest threat to American ginseng is irresponsible digging of its wild roots for export. [2]
As wild populations of American ginseng began to decline in the late 19th century, a market developed for cultivated ginseng. In 1887, the tinsmith George Stanton planted ginseng in the forest around Apulia Station, a hamlet in the town of Fabius in Onondaga County, New York. [39] Within a few years, he was growing ginseng in the open under artificial shade, and by the late 1890s, he had the largest ginseng plantation in the United States. [63] In his obituary (1908), Stanton was called the Father of the Cultivated Ginseng Industry. [64] [65]
Several associations were formed to support commercial growers of American ginseng. In 1902, George Stanton became the first president of the New York State Ginseng Growers Association. By 1913, the Wisconsin, Michigan, and Ohio growers' associations had the largest memberships. [66] American ginseng is the state herb of Wisconsin. [67]
American ginseng is grown commercially under artificial shade. [68] Under these conditions, a crop is harvested three to five years after seeding. Ginseng is also grown under forest-based, wild-simulated conditions, which require 6–10 years (or more) before harvest. [69] Based solely on yield, forest farming may be 1/10 as productive as commercial cultivation. [39]
American ginseng is commercially cultivated in Canada (60%), United States (30%), and China (7%). [70] In North America, it is cultivated primarily in Ontario, Wisconsin, and British Columbia. In 1994, Ontario and Wisconsin produced 1.5 and 2.0 million pounds of ginseng, respectively, while British Columbia produced 0.5 million pounds. [71] In other words, Canada and the United States each produced 2.0 million pounds (1,000 tons) of ginseng in 1994. In contrast, in 2007, Canada and the United States produced an estimated 6,486 tons and 1,054 tons (resp.) of ginseng, exporting $66 million and $37 million (resp.) worth of ginseng in 2009. [72] Based on these figures, Canada is the largest producer and exporter of American ginseng in the world.
Some states encourage the planting of ginseng both to restore natural habitats and to remove pressure from remaining wild populations. American ginseng is woods-cultivated in Colorado, Kentucky, Maine, North Carolina, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, and West Virginia. [73] [74]
Individuals requiring anticoagulant therapy such as warfarin should avoid use of ginseng. [75] It is not recommended for individuals with impaired liver or renal function, or during pregnancy or breastfeeding. [75] Other adverse effects include headaches, anxiety, trouble sleeping and an upset stomach. [75]
Recent studies have shown that through the many cultivated procedures that American ginseng is grown, fungal molds, pesticides, and various metals and residues have contaminated the crop. Though these contaminating effects are not considerably substantial, they do pose health concerns that could lead to neurological problems, intoxication, cardiovascular disease and cancer. [76]
Ginseng has been a part of traditional Chinese medicine for over 2,000 years. In Asia, American ginseng is highly valued for its cooling and sedative medicinal effects (yin), whereas Asian ginseng embodies the warmer aspects of yang. [77]
American ginseng was of minor importance in traditional Native American medicine. [78] [32] [35] A number of the uses cited in the literature were likely adopted from the Chinese after the export trade from Canada to China began in 1720. The Iroquois ingested or smoked the roots as a panacea. [79] The Menominee in northern Wisconsin used it as a tonic and to increase one's mental capability, [80] while the Penobscot in Maine used it to promote fertility. [81] The Seminole in Florida used it for gunshot wounds. [82] Native peoples from multiple tribes gathered the roots to barter with white traders. In the late 19th century, the Cherokee sold large quantities of ginseng to traders for fifty cents a pound. [83] According to James Mooney, a decoction made from its roots was drunk to relieve headaches and cramps. [84]
Cold-fX is a product derived from the roots of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius). The makers of Cold-fX were criticized for making health claims about the product that have never been tested or verified scientifically. Health Canada's review of the scientific literature confirmed that this is not a claim that the manufacturer is entitled to make. [85] More generally, there is no evidence that American ginseng is effective against the common cold. [75]
In the local vernacular, American ginseng has been variously known as "cheng", "chang", "sang", or "shang". [32] Those collecting it have been called "shangers" and hunting for it has been called "shanging". [86] In Appalachia, the wild-harvesting of American ginseng is called "sang hunting". Some blue-collar Appalachian families have been hunting sang for generations. [60] [87]
The Araliaceae are a family of flowering plants composed of about 43 genera and around 1500 species consisting of primarily woody plants and some herbaceous plants commonly called the ginseng family. The morphology of Araliaceae varies widely, but it is predominantly distinguishable based on its woody habit, tropical distribution, and the presence of simple umbels.
Goldenseal, also called orangeroot or yellow puccoon, is a perennial herb in the buttercup family Ranunculaceae, native to North America. It may be distinguished by its thick, yellow knotted rootstock. The stem is purplish and hairy above ground and yellow below ground where it connects to the yellow rhizome. Goldenseal reproduces both clonally through the rhizome and sexually, with clonal division more frequent than asexual reproduction. It takes between 4 and 5 years for a plant to reach sexual maturity, i.e. the point at which it produces flowers. Plants in the first stage, when the seed erupts and cotyledons emerge, can remain in this state one or more years. The second vegetative stage occurs during years two and three and is characterized by the development of a single leaf and absence of a well developed stem. Finally, the third stage is reproductive, at which point flowering and fruiting occurs. This last stage takes between 4 and 5 years to develop.
Ginseng is the root of plants in the genus Panax, such as Korean ginseng (P. ginseng), South China ginseng (P. notoginseng), and American ginseng (P. quinquefolius), characterized by the presence of ginsenosides and gintonin. Ginseng is common in the cuisines and medicines of China and Korea.
The Panax (ginseng) genus belongs to the Araliaceae (ivy) family. Panax species are characterized by the presence of ginsenosides and gintonin. Panax is one of approximately 60 plant genera with a classical disjunct east Asian and east North American distribution. Furthermore, this disjunct distribution is asymmetric as only two of the ~18 species in genus are native to North America.
Eleutherococcus senticosus is a species of small, woody shrub in the family Araliaceae native to Northeastern Asia. It may be colloquially called devil's bush, Siberian ginseng, taiga root, eleuthero, ciwujia, Devil's shrub, shigoka, touch-me-not, wild pepper, or kan jang. E. senticosus has a history of use in folklore and traditional Chinese medicine. Root extracts of E. senticosus are sold as a dietary supplement or cosmetic, usually under the name Siberian ginseng.
Panax ginseng, ginseng, also known as Asian ginseng, Chinese ginseng or Korean ginseng, is a species of plant whose root is the original source of ginseng root. It is a perennial plant that grows in the mountains of East Asia.
Withania somnifera, known commonly as ashwagandha, is an evergreen shrub in the Solanaceae or nightshade family that grows in India, the Middle East, and parts of Africa. Several other species in the genus Withania are morphologically similar.
Gynostemma pentaphyllum, also called jiaogulan, is a dioecious, herbaceous climbing vine of the family Cucurbitaceae widely distributed in South and East Asia as well as New Guinea.
Aralia nudicaulis is a species of flowering plant in the ivy family Araliaceae. It is native to northern and eastern North America.
Panax notoginseng is a species of the genus Panax, and it is commonly referred to in English as Chinese ginseng or notoginseng. In Chinese it is called tiánqī, tienchi ginseng, sānqī or sanchi, three-seven root, and mountain plant. P. notoginseng belongs to the same scientific genus as Panax ginseng. In Latin, the word panax means "cure-all", and the family of ginseng plants is one of the best-known herbs.
Nectria radicicola is a plant pathogen that is the causal agent of root rot and rusty root. Substrates include ginseng and Narcissus. It is also implicated in the black foot disease of grapevine. It is of the genus Nectria and the family Nectriaceae. N. radicicola is recognizable due to its unique anatomy, morphology, and the formation of its anamorph Cylindrocarpon desructans.
Joseph-François Lafitau was a French Jesuit missionary, ethnologist, and naturalist who worked in Canada. He is best known for his use of the comparative method in the field of scientific anthropology, the discovery of American ginseng, and his writings on the Iroquois. Lafitau was the first of the Jesuit missionaries in Canada to have a scientific point of view. Francis Parkman praises Lafitau, stating, "none of the old writers are so satisfactory as Lafitau."
Cold-FX is a product derived from the roots of North American ginseng. It was formulated by Jacqueline Shan and originally manufactured by her company, Afexa Life Sciences, which was acquired by Valeant Pharmaceuticals in 2011.
Ginsenosides or panaxosides are a class of natural product steroid glycosides and triterpene saponins. Compounds in this family are found almost exclusively in the plant genus Panax (ginseng), which has a long history of use in traditional medicine that has led to the study of pharmacological effects of ginseng compounds. As a class, ginsenosides exhibit a large variety of subtle and difficult-to-characterize biological effects when studied in isolation.
Erigeron philadelphicus, the Philadelphia fleabane, is a species of flowering plant in the composite family (Asteraceae). Other common names include common fleabane, daisy fleabane, frost-root, marsh fleabane, poor robin's plantain, skevish or skervish, and, in the British Isles, robin's-plantain, but all of these names are shared with other species of fleabanes (Erigeron). It is native to North America and has been introduced to Eurasia.
Panax vietnamensis or Vietnamese ginseng is a species of the ginseng genus Panax. In Vietnam the species, prized in herbal medicine, is commercially very valuable and now considered threatened.
Economic botany is the study of the relationship between people and plants. Economic botany intersects many fields including established disciplines such as agronomy, anthropology, archaeology, chemistry, economics, ethnobotany, ethnology, forestry, genetic resources, geography, geology, horticulture, medicine, microbiology, nutrition, pharmacognosy, and pharmacology. This link between botany and anthropology explores the ways humans use plants for food, medicines, and commerce.
James (Jim) B. McGraw is an American ecologist and Eberly Professor of Biology at West Virginia University.
Panax trifolius, commonly called dwarf ginseng, is a plant native to the Northeastern and Appalachian regions of North America. It is found in low mesic woods with acidic soils.
Pseudoginsenoside F11 is a chemical natural product found in American ginseng but not in Asian ginseng, although it has similar properties to the Asian ginseng compound ginsenoside Rf. The molecule is a triterpenoid saponin member of the dammarane family and contains a four-ring rigid skeleton. Compounds in the ginsenoside family are found almost exclusively in plants of the genus Panax. A wide variety of difficult-to-characterize in vitro effects have been reported for the compounds in isolation. Pseudoginsenoside F11 and its derivatives are sometimes referred to as having an ocotillol-type skeleton structure.