Hinduism in Bangladesh

For Hinduism in the West Bengal, India, see Hinduism in West Bengal. For ethnic and main group, see Bengali Hindus.

Bangladeshi Hindus
baṅladeśi hindura
বাংলাদেশী হিন্দুরা

Dhakeshwari National Temple, one of the important Hindu temples.
Total population
13,130,109 (2022 Census) (7.95% of the country's population) [1]
Regions with significant populations
All over Bangladesh, predominantly in Sylhet Division, Chittagong Division and Khulna Division
Sylhet Division	1,581,820 (13.5%)
Khulna Division	2,419,010 (11.52%)
Rangpur Division	1,874,904 (12.98%)
Chittagong Division	3,072,733 (16.65%)
Dhaka Division	2,721,416 (4.97%)
Rajshahi Division	1,081,584 (5.85%)
Religions
Hinduism (majority) [2] Tribal religions identified as Hindus (minority) [3]
Languages
Sanskrit (Sacred) Bangla and other tribal languages

Hinduism is the second largest religious affiliation in People's Republic of Bangladesh, as according to the 2022 Census of Bangladesh, approximately 13.1 million people responded that they were Hindus, constituting 7.95% out of the total population of 165.15 million people. ^{[4] [5]} In terms of population, Bangladesh is the third-largest Hindu populated country of the world, just after the neighboring republics of India and Nepal in the subcontinent. Hinduism is the second-largest religion in 61 out of 64 districts of Bangladesh, but there is no Hindu majority district in Bangladesh.

The Government of Bangladesh proclaimed that it is dedicated to ensuring the safety and security of the Hindu minority community, after attacks on Hindu temples during religious pujas, Hindu communities, temples, mandirs, and pandals in recent years. ^{[6] [7] [8] [9]}

Culture

In nature, Bangladeshi Hinduism closely resembles the forms and customs of Hinduism practiced in the neighboring Indian state of West Bengal, with which Bangladesh (at one time known as East Bengal) was united until the partition of India in 1947. ^[10] The vast majority of Hindus in Bangladesh are Bengali Hindus. ^[11]

Goddess (Devi) – usually venerated as Durga or Kali – is widely revered, often alongside her consort Shiva. ^[12] The worship of Shiva has generally found adherents among the higher castes in Bangladesh. ^{[13] [14]} Worship of Vishnu (typically in the form of his Avatars or incarnation Rama or Krishna ^{[ citation needed ]}) more explicitly cuts across caste lines by teaching the fundamental oneness of humankind in spirit. ^[14] Vishnu worship in Bengal expresses the union of the male and female principles in a tradition of love and devotion. ^{[15] [14]} This form of Hindu belief and the Sufi tradition of Islam have influenced and interacted with each other in Bengal. ^[14] Both were popular mystical movements emphasizing the personal relationship of religious leaders and disciples instead of the dry stereotypes of the Brahmins or the Ulama. ^{[14] [16]} As in Bengali Hindu practice, worship of Vishnu frequently occurs in a small devotional society (shomaj). ^[14] Both use the language of earthly love to express communion with the divine. ^{[14] [17]} In both traditions, the Bengali language is the vehicle of a large corpus of mystical literature of great beauty and emotional impact. ^[14]

In Bangladeshi Hinduism ritual bathing, vows, and pilgrimages to sacred rivers, mountains, and shrines are common practices. ^[14] An ordinary Hindu will worship at the shrines of Muslim pirs , without being concerned with the religion to which that place is supposed to be affiliated. ^{[14] [18]} Hindus revere many holy men and ascetics conspicuous for their bodily mortifications. ^[14] Some believe that they attain spiritual benefit merely by looking at a great holy man. ^[14] Durga Puja, held in September–October, is the most important festival of Bangladeshi Hindus and it is widely celebrated amongst Bangladeshi Hindus. Thousands of pandals (mandaps) are set up in various cities, towns, and villages to mark the festival. Other festivals are Kali Puja, Janmashtami, Holi, Saraswati Puja, Shivratri and Rathayatra, the most popular being the century-old Dhamrai Rathayatra.

The principle of ahimsa is expressed in almost universally observed rules against eating beef. ^[14] By no means are all Bangladeshi Hindus vegetarians, but abstinence from all kinds of meat is regarded as a "higher" virtue. ^[14] The Priestly Caste Brahmin (pronounced Brahmon in Bengali) Bangladeshi Hindus, unlike their counterparts elsewhere in South Asia, eat fish and chicken. ^[14] This is similar to the Indian state of West Bengal, where Hindus also consume fish, eggs, chicken, and mutton. There are also some vegetarians as well. There are also non-Bengali Hindus in Bangladesh, majority of the Hajong, Rajbongshi people and Tripuris in Bangladesh are Hindus. ^[19]

Demographics

Map of percentage of Bangladeshi Hindus by Upazila or Sub-district (2011 Census)

Percentage and population of Hinduism in Bangladesh

Year	Percentage (%)	Hindu Population	Total population	Notes
1901	33.00	9,546,240	28,927,626	Eastern Bengal region
1911	31.50	9,939,825	31,555,363	Before partition
1921	30.60	10,176,030	33,254,607
1931	29.40	10,466,988	35,604,189
1941	28.00	11,759,160	41,999,221
1951	22.05	9,239,603	42,062,462	During Pakistani rule
1961	18.50	9,379,669	50,804,914
1974	13.50	9,673,048	71,478,543	After independence of Bangladesh
1981	12.13	10,570,245	87,120,487
1991	10.51	11,178,866	106,315,583
2001	9.60	11,822,581	123,151,871
2011	8.54	12,299,940	144,043,697
2022	7.95	13,130,109	165,158,616

Source: Census of India 1901-1941, Census of East Pakistan 1951-1961, Bangladesh Government Census 1974-2022 ^{[20] [21] [22] [23]}

Statue of Hindu Goddess Saraswati, Dhaka University

According to the 2001 Bangladesh census, there were around 11.82 million Hindus in Bangladesh constituting 9.6% of the population, which at the time was 123.15 million. ^[24] The Bangladesh 2011 census states, that approximately 12.73 million people responded that they were Hindus, constituting 8.54% of the total 149.77 million. ^[25] While 2022 Census of Bangladesh, put the number of Hindus in Bangladesh at 13.1 million out of total 165.1 million population, thus constituting 7.95% of the population. ^[1] According to a report published by a local daily newspaper of Bangladesh, the Hindu population in the country has reduced by nearly one million between 2001 and 2011 period. ^[26] The reduction mainly happened in nine districts – Bhola, Barisal, Jhalokati, Pirojpur, Bagerhat, Narail, Gopalganj, Rajbari and Manikganj. ^[27] The United States Commission on International Religious Freedom have said that Hindus constitute merely 7% of the population in Bangladesh as per as the latest 2016 figures. ^[28] Hindus in Bangladesh in the late 2000s were almost evenly distributed in all regions, with large concentrations in Gopalganj, Dinajpur, Sylhet, Sunamganj, Mymensingh, Khulna, Jessore, Chittagong and parts of Chittagong Hill Tracts. In the capital city of Dhaka, Hindus are the second-largest religious community after the Muslims and the largest concentration of Hindus can be found in and around Shankhari Bazaar of the old city.

In 2013, Amnesty International reported that the rise of more explicitly Islamist political formations in Bangladesh during the 1990s had resulted in many Hindus being intimidated or attacked, and that fairly substantial numbers were leaving the country for India. ^[29]

In 1901, Hindus constituted 33% of the population of what is now Bangladesh. ^[30] In 1941, about 28% of the population were Hindus. Their proportion declined to 22% in 1951 after the Partition of India in 1947, as Hindus migrated from East Bengal to India. Wealthy Hindus who migrated lost their land and assets through the East Bengal Evacuees Act. Poor and middle-class Hindus who were left behind were targets of discriminatory new laws. At the outbreak of the 1965 India-Pakistan war, the Defense of Pakistan Ordinance, and later the Enemy (Custody and Registration) Order II, labeled Hindus as the "enemy" and expropriated their property. ^{[31] [32]} The 1974 census of Bangladesh showed that the population of Hindus had fallen to 13.5%. Even after independence, the Hindus were branded "Indian stooges" and untrustworthy citizens. ^[31]

Since 1971, the Hindu percentage has continued to decline, forming 8.5% of the population as of 2011. The fall in the share of total population has been attributed to outward migration, and the fertility rate for Hindus remaining consistently lower than Muslims (2.1 versus 2.3 as of 2014). ^[30] The bengali genocide of 1971 also disproportionately targetted Hindus. ^[33]

Hindu population by administrative divisions

Hindu Population across divisions of Bangladesh (2011) ^[34]

Division	Hindu Population	Total population	Percentage (%)
Barisal	761,779	8,325,666	9.23
Chittagong	2,005,004	2,8423,019	7.05
Dhaka	2,485,910	36,433,505	6.82
Khulna	2,030,309	15,687,759	12.94
Mymensingh	464,232	10,990,913	4.22
Rajshahi	1,081,584	18,484,858	5.85
Rangpur	2,086,148	15,787,758	13.21
Sylhet	1,391,911	9,910,219	14.05

According to the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics report, Khulna division has the highest decline in Hindu population of (1.33%) from 2011-22 period. In 2011, 12.85% of the population of the division were Hindus. This rate has come down to 11.52% in 2022. Among the eight divisions, Khulna has the third highest Hindu population. According to the 2022 census, Sylhet division has the highest Hindu population of 13.5%, but the ratio was 14.05% in 2011. In Rangpur division, the Hindu population has decreased from 13.21% in 2011 to 12.98% in 2022. Mymensingh division has the lowest percentage of people belonging to the Hindu community at (3.92%) as of 2022. ^[35]

Hindu Population across districts of Bangladesh (2011) ^[34]

District	Hindu population	Total population	Percentage (%)
Barguna	68,678	892,781	7.69
Barisal	271,706	2,324,310	11.69
Bhola	61,162	1,776,795	3.44
Jhalokati	68,572	682,669	10.04
Patuakhali	105,496	1,535,584	6.87
Pirojpur	186,165	1,113,257	16.72
Bandarban	13,137	388,335	3.38
Brahmanbaria	211,899	2,840,498	7.46
Chandpur	145,551	2,416,018	6.02
Chittagong	861,494	7,616,352	11.31
Comilla	258,105	5,387,288	4.79
Cox's Bazar	97,648	2,289,990	4.26
Feni	83,773	1,437,371	5.83
Khagrachhari	103,195	613,917	16.81
Lakshmipur	59,417	1,729,188	3.44
Noakhali	140,541	3,108,083	4.52
Rangamati	30,244	595,979	5.07
Dhaka	566,368	12,043,977	4.70
Faridpur	180,366	1,912,969	9.43
Gazipur	176,582	3,403,912	5.19
Gopalganj	353,794	1,172,415	30.18
Kishoreganj	158,538	2,911,907	5.44
Madaripur	141,097	1,165,952	12.10
Manikganj	130,095	1,392,867	9.34
Munshiganj	114,655	1,445,660	7.93
Narayanganj	144,105	2,948,217	4.89
Narsingdi	125,769	2,224,944	5.65
Rajbari	106,974	1,049,778	10.19
Shariatpur	41,330	1,155,824	3.58
Tangail	246,237	3,605,083	6.83
Bagerhat	270,874	1,476,090	18.35
Chuadanga	26,514	1,129,015	2.35
Jessore	310,184	2,764,547	11.22
Jhenaidah	167,880	1,771,304	9.48
Khulna	525,727	2,318,527	22.68
Kushtia	56,792	1,946,838	2.92
Magura	164,578	918,419	17.92
Meherpur	7,870	655,392	1.20
Narail	134,594	721,668	18.65
Satkhira	351,551	1,985,959	17.70
Jamalpur	38,832	2,292,674	1.69
Mymensingh	183,026	5,110,272	3.58
Netrokona	207,430	2,229,642	9.30
Sherpur	34,944	1,358,325	2.57
Bogra	205,333	3,400,874	6.04
Chapai Nawabganj	66,602	1,647,521	4.04
Joypurhat	80,696	913,768	8.83
Naogaon	287,919	2,600,157	11.07
Natore	103,747	1,706,673	6.08
Pabna	73,487	2,523,179	2.91
Rajshahi	122,394	2,595,197	4.72
Sirajganj	147,514	3,097,489	4.76
Dinajpur	583,313	2,990,128	19.51
Gaibandha	167,897	2,379,255	7.06
Kurigram	135,484	2,069,273	6.55
Lalmonirhat	174,558	1,256,099	13.90
Nilphamari	293,385	1,834,231	15.99
Panchagarh	163,404	987,644	16.54
Rangpur	258,684	2,881,086	8.98
Thakurgaon	309,423	1,390,042	22.26
Habiganj	352,407	2,089,001	16.87
Maulvibazar	471,974	1,919,062	24.59
Sunamganj	319,376	2,467,968	12.94
Sylhet	248,154	3,434,188	7.23

Hinduism in Bangladesh by decades ^[4]

Year	Percent	Increase
1901	33%	-
1911	31.5%	-1.5%
1921	30.6%	-0.9%
1931	29.4%	-1.2%
1941	28%	-1.4%
1951	22%	-6%
1961	18.5%	-3.5
1974	13.5%	-5
1981	12.1%	-1.4
1991	10.5%	-1.6
2001	9.6%	-0.9%
2011	8.54%	-1.06%
2022	7.95%	-0.59%

The Hindu population in what is now Bangladesh has consistently decreased as a percentage of the population, from 28% in 1941 to 13.5% at the time of Bangladesh's founding in 1974, and reducing further to 7.9% in 2022. ^{[23] [36] [37]} Bangladesh Census authority have found that since from the last 50 years, about 7.5 million (75 lakhs) Hindus have left the country due to religious persecution and discrimination. ^[38] As per as 2016 official figures, it is estimated that Hindu population have came down to a mere 7%. ^[39]

Projections

Future population

Historical Hindu Population

Year	Pop.	±%
1901	9,546,240	—
1911	9,939,825	+4.1%
1921	10,176,030	+2.4%
1931	10,466,988	+2.9%
1941	11,759,160	+12.3%
1951	9,239,603	−21.4%
1961	9,379,669	+1.5%
1974	9,673,048	+3.1%
1981	10,570,245	+9.3%
1991	11,178,866	+5.8%
2001	11,822,581	+5.8%
2011	12,730,651	+7.7%
2022	13,130,109	+3.1%
Source: God Willing: The Politics of Islamism in Bangladesh by Ali Riaz, p. 63 [1]

From 1964 to 2013, around 11.3 million Hindus left Bangladesh due to religious persecution and discrimination, as stated by Dhaka university economist Abul Barkat. On average 632 Hindus left the country each day and 230,612 annually as reported by him. ^[40]

From his 30-year-long research, Barkat found that the exodus mostly took place during military governments after independence. ^[41] Barkat also state's: that there should have been 28.7 million Hindus in the year 2013 instead of 12.2 million", Or, to put it another way, Hindus should accounted for 16-18% of Bangladesh's population, not 9.7% as they do currently. ^[42] According to the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom, Hindus constitute merely 7% of the population in Bangladesh as per as the latest 2016 figures. ^[43]

According to the Pew Research Center, Bangladesh will have 14.47 million Hindus by 2050 and will comprise 7.3% of the country's population. ^[44] Another theory suggest that Bangladesh will have at least 180-200 million population by 2050, ^[45] out of which there will be around 8.51-9.25 million Hindus living in this nation, thus constituting only 4% after the beginning of half-century. ^[46] On average, annually 230,612 Hindus were leaving Bangladesh for India permanently. So between (2024-2050), It is estimated that 5,995,912 Hindus will leave the country if current immigration on this rate continues further. ^[47]

Future Hindu population of Bangladesh

Year	Total Population	Hindu population	Percentage
2020	168,180,000	13,790,000	8.2%
2030	183,430,000	14,490,000	7.9%
2040	193,550,000	14,710,000	7.6%
2050	198,219,000	14,470,000	7.3%
Source: [44] [48] [49]

Missing population

See also: East Bengali refugees, Hinduism in West Bengal, States of India by Bengali speakers, Bengali Hindus, Bengali Hindu diaspora, and Bengali Hindus in Assam

With migration into West Bengal, the 1947 partition of Bengal significantly altered religious demographics in the eastern segment of the province, which later became Bangladesh. Violence also saw an uptick in the 1950s and 1960s in what had then become East Pakistan (present-day-Bangladesh), leading to large numbers of upper caste Bengali Hindus migrating to West Bengal, Assam and Tripura with official Indian Government records indicating 2,519,557 (Hindu) refugees crossed into India from East Bengal between 1941 and 1951. ^[50]

Utilizing demography studies and other methods over a 55-year period from 1947 to 2001, professor Sachi Dastidar of the State University of New York calculates that well over 49 million Hindus are missing today from Bangladesh. ^{[51] [52] [53]} According to a report published by a local daily newspaper of Bangladesh, the Hindu population in the country has reduced by 1 million between 2001 and 2011 period. ^{[54] [55]} Ergo in the absence of partition in 1947 and other events that followed, It is estimated the present-day Bangladeshi hindu population would be approximately 63.13 million or 28%, well above the current population of 12.73 million or 8.5%, as reported in the Bangladesh 2011 census. ^{[51] [52] [56] [54] [55]}

"Population of East Bengali refugees and their descendants living across different Indian states"

State	Population	Citation
Andaman and Nicobar Islands	100,000	[57]
Assam	7,500,000	[58]
Tripura	2,200,000	[59]
Uttarakhand	200,000	[60]
West Bengal	30,000,000	[61]
Total	40,000,000	[62]

After the 1960s, most of the migration was lower caste – a trend that has continued to till this day. As per a BJP estimate, Bangladeshi Hindu immigrants are a significant presence in 75 Assembly constituencies – making up approximately a fourth of the state's seats. ^[63]

Starting from the 2014 Lok Sabha elections, the BJP has made the issue of Hindu Bangladeshi immigrants a core part of its strategy in West Bengal. ^[64] An estimation shows that around 30 million Bangladeshi origin low-caste Hindu refugees live in different parts of West Bengal specially in southern districts namely North 24 Parganas, South 24 Parganas, Nadia and other smaller pockets of North and South Bengal, they are having an influence in over 70 assembly constituencies and are eagerly waiting to acquire Indian citizenship through CAA which was passed by Indian parliament in 2019 year for the purpose of granting them citizenship (if their religion is Hinduism, Sikhism, Jainism) as a promise criteria made by BJP in the election campaign of West Bengal earlier before the passage of that bill. ^{[65] [66] [67]} An estimation shows that Assam has around 2 million Bangladeshi Hindus living in different parts of the state and are struggling to acquire Indian citizenship just like their counterparts in neighbouring West Bengal. ^[68] The BJP hopes to wean away a large chunk of Bengali settlers who took refuge in Tripura from Bangladesh (former East Pakistan). The influx of the Bengali Hindus increased during the Bangladesh Liberation War and around at that time of (1971), India have received 10 million refugees from East Pakistan- mostly 80% being Hindus, and after Bangladesh become independent, nearly 1.5 million of Bengali Hindu refugees decided to stay back in India particularly in West Bengal and other North Eastern states majorly in Assam and Tripura. ^{[69] [70] [71] [72]} Census data show the population of Tripura's 19 Scheduled Tribes dropped from 63.77% in 1881 to 31.78% in 2011. This is attributed to the migration of 6.10 lakh Bengalis – the figure almost equal to the State's total population in 1951 – from East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) between 1947 and 1971. ^[73] At present, there are around 2.2 million Bengali Hindus in Tripura (moslty having Eastern Bangladeshi origin), making them the largest ethnic group in the State, constituting around 60 per cent of the state population. ^{[74] [75]}

Population controversies

The official number of Hindus living in Bangladesh is about 13.1 million or say 7.9% as per as 2022 census conducted by Bangladesh government authority. ^[1] However, at certain times different leaders as well as Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics have given different estimates. Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies (BIDS) have found that 4.67 million people, which is about 2.75% of country's total population, were have not been counted by the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS) for 2022 census. Moreover, around 2.75% of undercount was reported in the case of Muslims against 2.68% of followers of other religions. ^[76] At the same time, Indigenous activists of Bangladesh have claimed that Ethnic minorities have been undercounted in Bangladesh's latest census. ^[77]

Number of Hindus residing in Bangladesh (1998-2022 est.)

Source/claimed by	Population (%)	Year of claimed	Reference
Claimed by State Government of Bangladesh	20,160,000 (16%)	1998	[78]
Claimed by Rabindranath Trivedi, President of Human Rights Congress for Bangladesh Minorities (HRCBM)	22,260,000 (15%)	2010	[79]
Claimed Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics	15,500,000 (10.3%)	2014	[80]
Claimed Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics	17,000,000 (10.7%)	2016	[80]
Claimed by Ravindra Ghosh, Chairman of Bangladesh Hindu Janajagruti Samiti	18,000,000 (11.04%)	2019	[81]
Claimed Bangladesh Government Official Website (Introduction)	18,150,000 (12.1%)	(Unknown)	[82]
Claimed by KMSS leader Akhil Gogoi	19,000,000 (11.65%)	2019	[83]
2019 report on International religious freedom: Bangladesh (US State Dept)	15,280,000 (10%)	2019	[84]
Claimed by Bangladesh grand Hindu alliance leader Govindo Pramanik	25,000,000 (15.7%)	2019	[85]
Claimed by The Statesman Newspaper	19,560,000 (12%)	2021	[86]
Claimed by Bangladesh Information Minister Muhammad Hasan Mahmud	20,000,000 (12.1%)	2022	[87]

Hindu Temples

Main article: List of Hindu temples in Bangladesh

• 
  Kantajew Temple
• 
  Shiva Temple, Puthia, Rajshahi.
• 
  Ramna Kali Temple, Dhaka
• 
  Kal Bhairab Temple at Brahmanbaria.
• 
  Gobinda Temple, Puthia, Rajshahi, Bangladesh.
• 
  Durga Puja in Dhaka.
• 
  Roth Yatra procession.

Hindu temples and shrines are more or less distributed all across the country. The Kantaji Temple is an elegant example of an 18th-century temple. The most important temple in terms of prominence is the Dhakeshwari National Temple, located in Dhaka. This temple along with other Hindu organizations arranges Durga Puja and Krishna Janmaashtami very prominently.^{[ citation needed ]} The other main temples of Dhaka are the Ramakrishna Mission, Ramna Kali Temple, Joy Kali Temple, Laxmi Narayan Mandir, Swami Bagh Temple and Siddheswari Kalimandir. ^[88]

Many Hindu temples have suffered from the implementation of the Vested Property Act through which land and moveable property has been confiscated by agents acting on behalf of successive governments. ^{[89] [ better source needed ]}

Hindu marriage law

Further information: Bengali Hindu wedding

A typical Bangladeshi Hindu wedding.

Hindu family law governs the personal life of Hindus in Bangladesh. There is no known limit for the number of wives a Hindu man can take in Bangladesh so polygamy for Hindu man is legal in Bangladesh. ^[90]

"Under Bangladesh Hindu (civil) law, men may have multiple wives, but there are officially no options for divorce," the report said.

Women are also prohibited from inheriting property under the civil laws for Hindus, the report said.

A survey conducted during the year by Research Initiatives in Bangladesh and MJF showed that 26.7 percent of Hindu men and 29.2 percent of Hindu women would like to obtain a divorce but did not do so because of existing laws. ^[91]

Community issues

The Hindu community has many similar issues as the predominantly Muslim community of Bangladesh. These include women's rights, dowry, poverty, unemployment, and others. Issues unique to the Hindu community include maintenance of Hindu culture and temples in Bangladesh. Small sects of Islamists constantly try to politically and socially isolate the Hindus of Bangladesh. ^[92] Because Hindus of Bangladesh are scattered across all areas (except in Narayanganj), they cannot unite politically. However, Hindus became sway voters in various elections. Hindus have usually voted in large mass for Bangladesh Awami League and communist parties, as these are the only parties which have a nominal commitment to secularism; ^[93] the alternatives are the increasingly pro-Islamist centrist parties such as the Bangladesh Nationalist Party and Jatiya Party (which both incorporate Muslim identity into their version of Bangladeshi nationalism) or the outright Islamist Jamaat-e-Islami Bangladesh (an offshoot of the Pakistan-based Jamaat-e-Islami) which seeks to establish Islamic law under which there would be separate provisions for Hindus as non-Muslims. However, Hindus, in general, maintain cordial relationships with liberal Muslims and they even participate in each other's festivals such as Durga Puja and Eid al-Fitr.^{[ citation needed ]}

Bangladesh Liberation War atrocities (1971)

Main articles: Bangladesh Liberation War, 1971 Bangladesh atrocities, and Operation Searchlight

The Bangladesh Liberation War resulted in one of the largest genocides of the 20th century. While estimates of the number of casualties were 200,000–3,000,000, it is reasonably certain that Hindus bore a disproportionate brunt of the Pakistan Army's onslaught against the Bengali population of what was East Pakistan. ^[95] The Pakistani Army killed many Bengali Hindus during the Liberation War, and most of the Bengali Hindu-owned businesses were permanently destroyed. The historic Ramna Kali Temple in Dhaka and the century-old Rath at Dhamrai were demolished and burned down by the Pakistani Army. ^[97]

The initial post-independence period (1972–75)

In the first constitution of the newly independent country, secularism and equality of all citizens irrespective of religious identity were enshrined. ^[98] On his return to liberated Bangladesh, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman in his first speech to the nation, specifically recognized the disproportionate suffering of the Hindu population during the Bangladesh Liberation War. On a visit to Kolkata, India in February 1972, Mujib visited the refugee camps that were still hosting several million Bangladeshi Hindus and appealed to them to return to Bangladesh and to help to rebuild the country. ^[99]

Despite the public commitment of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and his government to re-establishing secularism and the rights of non-Muslim religious groups, two significant aspects of his rule remain controversial as relates to the conditions of Hindus in Bangladesh. ^[100] The first was his refusal to return the premises of the Ramna Kali Mandir, historically the most important temple in Dhaka, to the religious body that owned the property. This centuries-old Hindu temple was demolished by the Pakistan army during the Bangladesh Liberation War, and around one hundred devotees were murdered. Under the provisions of the Enemy Property Act, it was determined that ownership of the property could not be established as there were no surviving members to claim inherited rights, and the land was handed over to the Dhaka Club. ^{[101] [102]}

Secondly, state-authorized confiscation of Hindu owned property under the provisions of the Enemy Property Act was rampant during Mujib's rule, and as per the research conducted by Abul Barkat of Dhaka University, the Awami League party of Sheikh Mujib was the largest beneficiary of Hindu property transfer in the past 35 years of Bangladeshi independence. ^[103] This was enabled considerably because of the particular turmoil and displacement suffered by Bangladeshi Hindus, who bore the disproportionate burnt of the Pakistan army's genocide, as well documented by international publications such as Time magazine and the New York Times , and by the declassified Hamoodur Rahman Commission report. This caused much bitterness among Bangladeshi Hindus, particularly given the public stance of the regime's commitment to secularism and communal harmony. ^{[104] [105]}

Zia and Ershad regimes (1975–1990)

President Ziaur Rahman abandoned the constitutional provision for secularism and began to introduce Islamic symbolism in all spheres of national life (such as official seals and the constitutional preamble). Zia brought back the multi-party system thus allowing organizations such as Jamaat-e-Islami Bangladesh (an offshoot of the Islamist Jamaat-e-Islami in Pakistan) to regroup and contest elections.

In 1988 President Hussein Mohammed Ershad declared Islam to be the State Religion of Bangladesh. Though the move was protested by students and left-leaning political parties and minority groups, to this date neither the regimes of the BNP or Awami League has challenged this change and it remains in place. ^[106]

In 1990, the Ershad regime was widely blamed for negligence (and some human rights analysis allege active participation) in the anti-Hindu riots following the Babri Mosque incident in India, the largest communal disturbances since Bangladesh independence, as a means of diverting attention from the rapidly increasing opposition to his rule. ^{[107] [108]} Many Hindu temples, Hindu neighbourhoods and shops were attacked and damaged including, for the first time since 1971, the Dhakeshwari temple. The atrocities were brought to the West's attention by many Bangladeshis, including Taslima Nasrin and her book Lajja which translated into English means "shame". ^[109]

Return to democracy (1991–2008)

Hindu festival in Bangladesh.

Immediately after the Bangladesh Nationalist Party and its Islamic fundamentalist allies came to power in the October 2001 elections, ruling coalition activists attacked Hindus on a large scale in retribution for their perceived support of the opposition Awami League. Hundreds were killed, many were raped, and thousands fled to India. ^[110] The events were widely seen as a repercussion against the razing of the Babri Mosque in India. ^[111]

Prominent political leaders frequently fall back on "Hindu bashing" in an attempt to appeal to extremist sentiment and to stir up communal passions. In one of the most notorious utterances of a mainstream Bangladeshi figure, the immediate past Prime Minister Khaleda Zia, while the leader of the opposition in 1996, declared that the country was at risk of hearing "uludhhwani" (a Hindu custom involving women's ululation) from mosques, replacing the azan (Muslim call to prayer) (e.g., see Agence-France Press report of 18 November 1996, "Bangladesh opposition leader accused of hurting religious sentiment"). ^[112]

After the election of 2001, when a right-wing coalition including two Islamist parties (Jamaat-e-Islami Bangladesh and Islami Oikya Jote) led by the pro-Islamic right wing Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) came to power, many minority Hindus and liberal secularist Muslims were attacked by a section of the governing regime. Thousands of Bangladeshi Hindus were believed to have fled to neighbouring India ^[113] to escape the violence unleashed by activists sympathetic to the new government. Many Bangladeshi Muslims played an active role in documenting atrocities against Hindus during this period. ^{[112] [114]}

The new government also clamped down on attempts by the media to document alleged atrocities against non-Muslim minorities following the election. Severe pressure was put on newspapers and other media outside of government control through threats of violence and other intimidation. Most prominently, the Muslim journalist and human rights activist Shahriyar Kabir was arrested on charges of treason on his return from India where he had been interviewing Hindu refugees from Bangladesh; this was by the Bangladesh High Court and he was subsequently freed. ^[115]

The fundamentalists and right-wing parties such as the BNP and Jatiya Party often portray Hindus as being sympathetic to India, and transferring economic resources to India, contributing to a widespread perception that Bangladeshi Hindus are disloyal to the state. Also, the right-wing parties claim the Hindus to be backing the Awami League. ^[29] As widely documented in international media, Bangladesh authorities have had to increase security to enable Bangladeshi Hindus to worship freely following widespread attacks on places of worship and devotees. ^[116]

After bombings in Bangladesh by the Islamic fundamentalists, the government has taken steps to strengthen the security during various minority celebrations, especially during Durga Puja and Rathayatra. ^[117]

In October 2006, the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom published a report titled 'Policy Focus on Bangladesh,' which said that since its last election, 'Bangladesh has experienced growing violence by religious extremists, intensifying concerns expressed by the country's religious minorities'. The report further stated that Hindus are particularly vulnerable in a period of rising violence and extremism, whether motivated by religious, political or criminal factors, or some combination. The report noted that Hindus had multiple disadvantages against them in Bangladesh, such as perceptions of dual loyalty concerning India and religious beliefs that are not tolerated by the politically dominant Islamic Fundamentalists of the BNP. Violence against Hindus has taken place "in order to encourage them to flee in order to seize their property". The previous reports of the Hindu American Foundation were acknowledged and confirmed by this non-partisan report. ^{[118] [119]}

On 2 November 2006, USCIRF criticized Bangladesh for violence against minority Hindus. It also urged the Bush administration to get Dhaka to ensure the protection of religious freedom and minority rights before Bangladesh's next national elections in January 2007. ^{[118] [119]}

Sheikh Hasina era (2008–present)

In 2013, the International Crimes Tribunal indicted several Jamaat members for war crimes against Hindus during the 1971 Bangladesh atrocities. In retaliation, violence against Hindu minorities in Bangladesh was instigated by the Bangladesh Jamaat-e-Islami. ^[120]

BJHM (Bangladesh Jatiya Hindu Mahajote) claimed in its report that in 2017, at least 107 people of the Hindu community were killed and 31 fell victims to enforced disappearance 782 Hindus were either forced to leave the country or threatened to leave, and besides this, 23 were forced to get converted into other religions and at least 25 Hindu women and children were raped, while 235 temples and statues were vandalized during the year. The total number of atrocities happened with the Hindu community in 2017 is 6474. ^[121]

During the 2019 Bangladesh elections, eight houses belonging to Hindu families on fire in Thakurgaon alone. ^[122] In April 2019, two idols of Hindu goddesses, Lakshmi and Saraswati, have been vandalized by unidentified miscreants at a newly constructed temple in Kazipara of Brahmanbaria. ^[123] In the same month, several idols of Hindu gods in two temples in Madaripur Sadar Upazila which were under construction were desecrated by miscreants. ^[124]

In 2021, many temples and houses of Hindus were broken and vandalized after an attack on them on Narendra Modi visit to Bangladesh by Hefazat-e-Islam and other radical groups as anti-Modi protests. ^{[125] [126] [127]} Similarly, there were attacks on Hindus in 2020, after some of them supported France after the Murder of Samuel Paty. ^[128] In the October of the same year there had been a severe communal violence in Bangladesh against the Bengali Hindus, after the video of Quran desecration at the Durga Puja pandals was spread in which more than 120 Hindu temples were vandalized and nearly 7 Hindus were killed. ^{[129] [130]} It was described by The New York Times as "worst communal violence in years". ^[131]

According to Dr. Abul Barkat, no Hindus will be left in Bangladesh 30 years from now if the current rate of “exodus” continues as on an average 632 people from the minority community leave the Muslim-majority country each day. From 1964 to 2013, around 11.3 million Hindus left Bangladesh due to religious persecution and discrimination which means on an average 632 Hindus left the country each day and 230,612 annually, he said at the book launch ceremony at the Dhaka University (DU). ^[132]

Persecution

See also: Persecution of Hindus in Bangladesh, Persecution of Non-Muslims in Bangladesh, List of massacres in Bangladesh, Bangladesh Genocide, and Malaun

Malaun (from Arabic ملعون, meaning "accursed") is a pejorative term for Bengali Hindus, most commonly used in Bangladesh by Bengali Muslims. ^{[133] [134] [135] [136]} Hindus and others have been regularly and systematically persecuted, such as during the Bangladesh genocide, Bangladesh Liberation War and numerous recurring massacres of civilians ^{[137] [138] [139] [140] [141] [142] [143]} where rapes is also used as weapon. ^{[144] [145]} Active perpetrators of genocide, ethnic cleansing and rapes of Hindus in Bangladesh include the Pakistani Military, ^[141] Al Badr, ^{[146] [147]} Al Sham, ^[148] East Pakistan Central Peace Committee, ^[149] Razakars, ^[150] Muslim League, ^[151] Jamaat-e-Islami, ^[151] and the Urdu-speaking Biharis. ^[151] According to the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF), Hindus are among those persecuted in Bangladesh, with hundreds of cases of "killings, attempted killings, death threats, assaults, rapes, kidnappings, and attacks on homes, businesses, and places of worship" on religious minorities in 2017. ^[152] The 'Vested Property Act' previously named the 'Enemy Property Act' has seen up to 40% of Hindu land get snatched away forcibly. Hindu temples in Bangladesh have also been vandalised. ^[153]

Political representation

Even after the decline of the Hindu population in Bangladesh from 13.5% in 1974, just after the independence, Hindus were at around 11.2% of the population in 2001 according to government estimates following the census. However, Hindus accounted for only thirty two members of the 300 member parliament following the 2001 elections through direct election; this went up to thirty five following a by-election victory in 2004. Of the 50 seats reserved for women that are directly nominated by the Prime Minister, only four were allotted to a Hindu. The political representation is not at all satisfactory and several Hindu advocacy groups in Bangladesh have demanded a return to a communal electorate system as existed during the Pakistan period, to enable a more equitable and proportionate representation in parliament, or a reserved quota since the persecution of Hindus has continued since 1946. ^[154]

Despite their dwindling population in terms of overall percentage, Hindus still yield considerable influence because of their geographical concentration in certain regions. They form a majority of the electorate in at least two parliamentary constituencies (Khulna-1 and Gopalganj-3) and account for more than 25% in at least another thirty. For this reason, they are often the deciding factor in parliamentary elections where victory margins can be extremely narrow. It is also frequently alleged that this is a prime reason for many Hindus being prevented from voting in elections, either through intimidating actual voters or through exclusion in voter list revisions. ^[155]

Prominent Bangladeshi Hindus

Main article: List of Bangladeshi Hindus

See also

• Hinduism portal
• Bangladesh portal

• Religion in Bangladesh
• Hinduism by country
• Bengali Hindus

References

1. "Census 2022: Bangladesh population now 165 million". 27 July 2022.
2. Lorea 2016, p. 89
3. Schulte-Droesch, Lea (2018). Making place through ritual : land, environment and region among the Santal of Central India. p. 187. ISBN   978-3-11-053973-8. OCLC   1054397811.
4. "Population & Housing Census-2011: Union Statistics" (PDF). Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. March 2014. p. xiii. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 September 2017. Retrieved 17 April 2015.
5. "Bangladesh Population (2021) – Worldometer". worldometers.info. Retrieved 4 May 2021.
6. "Bangladesh Govt committed to safety and security of Hindu minorities: Information Minister Hasan Mahmud". The Hindu. 29 October 2022. ISSN   0971-751X . Retrieved 19 July 2023.
7. Ray, Shantanu Guha (1 April 2023). "World silent on efforts by zealots to ethnically cleanse Hindus in Bangladesh". The Sunday Guardian Live. Retrieved 16 October 2023.
8. "An Unholy Omen Is Looming Over Bangladesh". The Wire. Retrieved 16 October 2023.
9. "Bangladesh: Protection of Hindus and others must be ensured amid ongoing violence". Amnesty International. 18 October 2021. Retrieved 16 October 2023.
10. Rummel 1998, p. 877.
11. Nasrin 2014, pp. 67–90.
12. "Kali Puja on Saturday". Dhaka Tribune. 13 November 2020. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
13. "The Subaltern Deities of Bengal Are up Against Aggressive Hindutva Now". The Wire . Retrieved 13 February 2021.
14. Rahim, Enayetur (1989). "Hinduism". In Heitzman, James; Worden, Robert L (eds.). Bangladesh: a country study. Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. pp. 78–82. OCLC   49223313. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
15. Mark W. Muesse (2011). The Hindu traditions. Internet Archive. Fortress Press. pp.  6670. ISBN   978-0-8006-9790-7.
16. Chari, S. M. Srinivasa (1994). Vaiṣṇavism: Its Philosophy, Theology, and Religious Discipline. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. pp. 32–33. ISBN   978-81-208-1098-3.
17. "International Journal of Hindu Studies | Volumes and issues". SpringerLink. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
18. Aquil, Raziuddin. "History of a distinct culture". Frontline. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
19. Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. "Refworld – World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Bangladesh : Adivasis". Refworld.
20. "Latest News @". Newkerala.com. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
21. "Bangladesh". State.gov. Archived from the original on 27 October 2019. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
22. "Bangladesh – Population Census 1991". catalog.ihsn.org.
23. Network, T. D. G. (27 July 2022). "BANGLADESH'S HINDU POPULATION DECREASED BY 0.59% IN A DECADE" . Retrieved 11 March 2023.
24. Nagarajan, Rema (22 May 2010). "Door out of Dhaka". The Times of India. Retrieved 9 May 2021.
25. "Official Census Results 2011 page xiii" (PDF). Bangladesh Government. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 September 2017. Retrieved 17 April 2015.
26. "Bangladeshi Hindus seeking safety in India". Deutsche Welle.
27. Alaldulal (12 April 2014). "Is this the Bangladesh we wanted? Analyzing the Hindu Population Gap (2001-2011)". আলাল ও দুলাল | ALAL O DULAL. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
28. "As per as Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, The country's Hindu population have declined from 8.5% in 2011 to 7% in 2016". The New Indian Express.
29. "Bangladesh: Wave of violent attacks against Hindu minority". Amnesty International. 6 March 2013. Archived from the original on 5 November 2018. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
30. Moinuddin Haider, M.; Rahman, Mizanur; Kamal, Nahid (2019). "Hindu Population Growth in Bangladesh: A Demographic Puzzle". Journal of Religion and Demography. 6 (1): 123–148. doi:10.1163/2589742X-00601003. S2CID   189978272.
31. Lintner, Bertil (2015), Great Game East: India, China, and the Struggle for Asia's Most Volatile Frontier, Yale University Press, pp. 152–153, ISBN   978-0-300-21332-4
32. D'Costa, Bina (2011), Nationbuilding, Gender and War Crimes in South Asia, Routledge, p. 100, ISBN   978-0-415-56566-0
33. MacDermot, Niall (June 1972). "The Review" (PDF). International Commission of Jurists. p. 34. Retrieved 29 November 2023. As far as the other three groups are concerned, namely members of the Awami League, students and Hindus, only Hindus would seem to fall within the definition of ' a national, ethnical, racial or religious group '. There is overwhelming evidence that Hindus were slaughtered and their houses and villages destroyed simply because they were Hindus. The oft repeated phrase ' Hindus are enemies of the state ' as a justification for the killing does not gainsay the intent to commit genocide; rather does it confirm the intention. The Nazis regarded the Jews as enemies of the state and killed them as such. In our view there is a strong prima facie case that the crime of genocide was committed against the group comprising the Hindu population of East Bengal.
34. "Population & Housing Census 2011 (Zila Series & Community Series)". Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 23 July 2021. See individual Zila files for religion and population information
35. "Population of minority religions decrease further in Bangladesh". 27 July 2022.
36. Ashraf, Ajaz. "Interview: Hindus in Bangladesh have faced ethnic cleansing since 1947". Scroll.in. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
37. Mithun, Mahanam Bhattacharjee (14 May 2019). "Reasons Behind the Forced Migration of Bangladeshi Hindu Religious Minorities to India". International Journal on Minority and Group Rights. 26 (3): 461–483. doi:10.1163/15718115-02603002. ISSN   1385-4879. S2CID   150499523.
38. "Hindus in Bangladesh decrease by 7.5 million over 50 years: Census". 15 November 2021.
39. "At a mere 7 per cent, Bangladesh Hindus under threat, says US rights activist". The New Indian Express. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
40. https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/10113/%E2%80%98no-hindus-will-be-left-after-30-years%E2%80%99
41. "No Hindus will be left after 30 years". Dhaka Tribune. 20 November 2016. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
42. "Bangladeshis Say Amit Shah Playing Jinnah's Game". NewsClick. 8 October 2019. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
43. "At a mere 7 per cent, Bangladesh Hindus under threat, says US rights activist". The New Indian Express. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
44. "Projected Changes in the Global Hindu Population". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 2 April 2015. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
45. "What will Bangladesh look like in 2050?". The Daily Star. 14 April 2018. Retrieved 9 May 2021.
46. "Violence Against Minority Hindus in Bangladesh: An Analysis". vifindia.org. Retrieved 9 May 2021.
47. "No Hindus will be left in Bangladesh after 30 years: professor". The Hindu. PTI. 22 November 2016. ISSN   0971-751X . Retrieved 22 April 2021.
48. Alam, Nurul; Barkat-e-Khuda (2011). "Demographics of Muslims and Non-Muslims in Bangladesh". Demography India. 40 (1): 163–174 – via ResearchGate.
49. "Religions in Bangladesh | PEW-GRF". globalreligiousfutures.org. Retrieved 22 April 2021.
50. "Homepage". home.iitk.ac.in. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
51. "Ethnic cleansing of Hindus on rise in Bangladesh". The New Indian Express. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
52. "OHCHR | Home".
53. https://www.ipf.org.in  › EncycPDF Bangladesh Book final english – India Policy Foundation
54. "Bangladeshi Hindus seeking safety in India". Deutsche Welle. 7 June 2016. Retrieved 4 May 2021.
55. Alaldulal (12 April 2014). "Is this the Bangladesh we wanted? Analyzing the Hindu Population Gap (2001-2011)". alalodulal.org. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
56. https://www.ipf.org.in  › EncycPDF Bangladesh Book final english – India Policy Foundation
58. https://www.thenewsweb.in/india/bengali-speaking-voters-may-prove-crucial-in-the-second-phase-of-assam-poll/
59. https://www.dailypioneer.com/2017/sunday-edition/bjp-eyes-22-m-bengali-hindus-in-tripura-quest.html
60. https://nickledanddimed.com/2021/08/09/bengali-community-of-uttarakhand-issues-concerns-and-fears/#:~:text=The%20state%20of%20Uttarakhand%20hosts,Government%20led%20by%20Indira%20Gandhi.
61. https://www.firstpost.com/explainers/matuas-west-bengal-caa-implementation-bjp-lok-sabha-elections-13747996.html
62. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/over-1cr-bengali-refugees-living-outside-bengal/articleshow/67348291.cms
63. https://scroll.in/article/845354/why-hindu-immigrants-from-bangladesh-are-a-key-component-of-the-bjps-west-bengal-expansion-strategy
64. Daniyal, Shoaib. "Why Hindu immigrants from Bangladesh are a key component of the BJP's West Bengal expansion strategy". Scroll.in. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
65. Lahiri, Ishadrita (22 February 2021). "Explained: Why The Matua Vote Is Crucial For Bengal Elections". TheQuint. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
66. "Bengal polls: Matua MP says his community wants CAA to be implemented, waiting to hear from Shah". The New Indian Express. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
67. "TMC, BJP jostle for SC, ST, refugee vote banks in Bengal ahead of Assembly polls in 2021". Deccan Herald. 7 November 2020. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
68. "20 lakh Bangladeshi Hindus to become Indians if Citizenship Bill is passed: KMSS". The Free Press Journal. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
69. IIT Kanpur https://home.iitk.ac.in  › ArticlePDF Hindu Genocide in East Pakistan
70. "When Indira Gandhi said: Refugees of all religions must go back – Watch video". Times Now. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
71. "A home ... far from home?". The Hindu. 30 July 2000. Archived from the original on 4 May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2021.
72. Ayoob, Mohammed (15 March 2018). "Explaining 1971". The Hindu. ISSN   0971-751X . Retrieved 4 May 2021.
73. Karmakar, Rahul (27 October 2018). "Tripura, where demand for Assam-like NRC widens gap between indigenous people and non-tribal settlers". The Hindu. ISSN   0971-751X . Retrieved 21 April 2021.
74. "BJP eyes 2.2 m Bengali Hindus in Tripura quest". The Pioneer. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
75. "Tripura election 2018: What prompted Bengali-majority Tripura to forgive BJP | India News". The Times of India. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
76. "46.7 lakh people undercounted in latest census: BIDS". The Business Standard. 6 February 2023. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
77. Presse, AFP-Agence France. "Ethnic Minorities Missing From Census, Say Bangladesh Activists". www.barrons.com. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
78. Background Notes: Bangladesh, November 1997 U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 11 March 2023
79. "Door out of Dhaka". The Times of India. 22 May 2010. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
80. "Bangladesh's Hindus number 1.7 crore, up by 1 p.c. in a year: report". The Hindu. PTI. 23 June 2016. ISSN   0971-751X . Retrieved 9 May 2021.
81. "Atrocities on Hindus in Bangladesh: Now, 1.8 crore Hindu Bengali citizens of Bangladesh are ready to go to India, said Ravindra Ghosh, Chairman of Bangladesh Hindu Janajagruti Samiti" . Retrieved 9 May 2021.
82. "Bangladesh – An Introduction". Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
83. "Protests across Assam over Citizenship (Amendment) Bill". The Hindu. PTI. 6 December 2019. ISSN   0971-751X . Retrieved 9 May 2021.
84. https://www.state.gov  › reports › ba... Web results 2019 Report on International Religious Freedom: Bangladesh
85. "As per as Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, there are around 2.5 crore Hindus living in the country, constituting 15.7 per cent of the population as of 2019 year". Apn news.
86. Service, Statesman News (27 November 2021). "Migration Muddle". The Statesman . Retrieved 11 March 2023.
87. "As per Bangladesh Information Minister, "There are about two crore Hindus living in Bangladesh and in 2022, about 33,000 Durga Puja pandals have been organized throughout the nation". telegraphindia.
88. "Top 10 Hindu Temple in Bangladesh (Oldest And Biggest)". Travel Mate. 11 September 2019. Retrieved 22 April 2021.
89. Feldman, Shelley (22 April 2016). "The Hindu as Other: State, Law, and Land Relations in Contemporary Bangladesh". South Asia Multidisciplinary Academic Journal (13). doi: 10.4000/samaj.4111 . ISSN   1960-6060.
90. "Bangladesh: Family code". Archived from the original on 18 May 2019. Retrieved 10 June 2009.
91. "Hindus can practice polygamy in Bangladesh; forbidden to divorce, remarry". Business Standard . IANS. 16 August 2017. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
92. "बांग्लादेश में ¨हदू परिवारों के हमलावरों पर हो कार्रवाई : सुशील". Dainik Jagran.
93. বাংলাদেশ আওয়ামী লীগ এর গঠনতন্ত্র [Constitution of Bangladesh Awami League] (in Bengali). Archived from the original on 29 July 2017. Retrieved 21 November 2016.
94. Murshid 2018, p. 21
95. ^{[94] [2]}
96. "Pakistan: The Ravaging of Golden Bengal". Time. Vol. 98, no. 5. 2 August 1971. Archived from the original on 11 March 2007. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
97. An article in Time magazine dated 2 August 1971, stated "The Hindus, who account for three-fourths of the refugees and a majority of the dead, have borne the brunt of the Moslem military's hatred." ^[96] Senator Edward Kennedy wrote in a report that was part of United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations testimony dated 1 November 1971, "Hardest hit have been members of the Hindu community who have been robbed of their lands and shops, systematically slaughtered, and in some places, painted with yellow patches marked "H". All of this has been officially sanctioned, ordered and implemented under martial law from Islamabad". In the same report, Senator Kennedy reported that 60% of the refugees in India were Hindus and according to numerous international relief agencies such as UNESCO and World Health Organization, the number of East Pakistani refugees at its peak in India was close to 10 million. The Pulitzer Prize–winning journalist Sydney Schanberg covered the start of the war and wrote extensively on the suffering of the East Bengalis, including the Hindus both during and after the conflict. In a syndicated column "The Pakistani Slaughter That Nixon Ignored", he wrote about his return to liberated Bangladesh in 1972. "Other reminders were the yellow "H"s the Pakistanis had painted on the homes of Hindus, particular targets of the Pakistani army, (Newsday, 29 April 1994).
98. Nasrin 2014, pp. 78–79.
99. Nasrin 2014 , pp. 91–92; Benkin 2014 , pp. 879–881; Rummel 1998 , pp. 67–74.
100. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, Sakkottai (1921). South India and her Muhammadan invaders. London: H. Milford, Oxford University Press. OCLC   5212194.
101. "Bangladesh slammed for persecution of Hindus". rediff.com. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
102. Gupta, Jyoti Bhusan Das (2007). Science, Technology, Imperialism, and War. Pearson Education India. p. 733. ISBN   978-81-317-0851-4.
103. "Discrimination against Bangladeshi Hindus: Report". rediff.com. Retrieved 22 February 2021.
104. Mujtaba, Syed Ali (2005). Soundings on South Asia. Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. p. 100. ISBN   978-1-932705-40-9.
105. Bandyopadhyay 2004 , pp. 89–90.
106. "Bangladesh Parliament Votes To Make Islam State Religion". The New York Times. 8 June 1988. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
107. "Primary Report". Hrcbm.org. 31 October 1990. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
108. "South Asia: Afghanistan" (PDF). United States House Committee on International Relations. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 December 2006.
109. Nasrin 2014.
110. Ramananda Sengupta (22 March 2006). "The truth about Bangladesh's Hindus". Rediff.com. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
111. "Analysis: Fears of Bangladeshi Hindus". BBC News. 19 October 2001. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
112. "Bangladesh". State.gov. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
113. "India state warns of Bangladesh refugees". BBC News. 15 November 2001. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
114. "Bangladesh Hindu atrocities 'documented'". BBC News. 8 November 2001. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
115. "Bangladesh scribe arrest 'illegal'". BBC News. 12 January 2002. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
116. "Security fears for Hindu festival". BBC News. 8 October 2002. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
117. "Business & Financial News, U.S & International Breaking News | Reuters". Reuters. Archived from the original on 31 March 2007. Retrieved 22 February 2021.
118. "Bangladesh slammed for persecution of Hindus". Rediff.com. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
119. "Original USCIRF Report, United States Commission on International Religious Freedom" (PDF). Uscirf.gov. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2011. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
120. "Bangladesh: Wave of violent attacks against Hindu minority". Press releases. Amnesty International. Archived from the original on 9 March 2013. Retrieved 8 March 2013.
121. "BJHM: 107 Hindus killed, 31 forcibly disappeared in 2017". Dhaka Tribune. 6 January 2018. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019. Retrieved 30 October 2019.
122. "Hindu houses under 'arson' attack ahead of Bangladesh elections". The Statesman. 28 December 2018. Archived from the original on 20 April 2019. Retrieved 30 October 2019.
123. "Hindu idols vandalized in Brahmanbaria". Dhaka Tribune. 8 April 2019. Retrieved 30 October 2019.
124. "Hindu idols desecrated in Madaripur". Dhaka Tribune. 26 April 2019. Retrieved 30 October 2019.
125. "Extremist Islamist group's supporters attack 70-80 Hindu houses in Bangladesh: Police". India Today. Retrieved 22 April 2021.
126. "Bangladesh violence spreads after PM Modi's visit, attacks on Hindu temples, train – Times of India". The Times of India. Retrieved 22 April 2021.
127. "Hardline Hefazat-e-Islam supporters attack Hindu village in Bangladesh: Report". Hindustan Times. 18 March 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2021.
128. "Hindu homes attacked in Bangladesh over rumours about alleged Facebook post slandering Islam". The Hindu. PTI. 2 November 2020. ISSN   0971-751X . Retrieved 22 April 2021.
129. "Seven dead after violence erupts during Hindu festival in Bangladesh". The Guardian. 16 October 2021. Retrieved 21 November 2021.
130. "Police: Comilla resident Iqbal placed the Quran on a Puja idol". Dhaka Tribune. 20 October 2021. Retrieved 21 November 2021.
131. Hasnat, Saif; Mashal, Mujib (15 October 2021). "Bangladesh Strengthens Security as Violence Targets Hindu Festival". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 21 November 2021.
132. "In 30 years, there would be no Hindus in Bangladesh". 21 November 2016.
133. Roy, Tathagata (2002). My People, Uprooted. Kolkata: Ratna Prakashan. p. 18. ISBN   81-85709-67-X.
134. Dastidar, Sachi (12 April 2008). "Bangladesh: The Upcoming National Elections, Pluralism, Tolerance and the Plight of Hindu and Non-Muslim Minority - Need a New Direction". Bangladesh: Religious Freedom, Extremism, Security, and the Upcoming National Elections. United States Commission on International Religious Freedom. Archived from the original on 28 August 2013. Retrieved 13 September 2013.
135. "Minorities Fear for Life and Security" (PDF). HRCBM. 12 September 2002. Retrieved 16 October 2013.
136. Chatterjee, Garga (4 March 2015). "The unholy killings of Avijit Roy and Govind Pansare". Daily News and Analysis. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
137. "Forkan Razakar's verdict any day". Dhaka Tribune. 14 June 2015.
138. "Why is the mass sexualized violence of Bangladesh's Liberation War being ignored?". Women In The World. 25 March 2016.
139. "Discovery of numerous Mass Graves, Various types of torture on Women" and "People's Attitude" (PDF). kean.edu.
140. "Crimes Against Humanity in Bangladesh". scholar.smu.edu.
141. "Bangladesh war: The article that changed history". BBC News. 25 March 2010.
142. White, Matthew, Death Tolls for the Major Wars and Atrocities of the Twentieth Century
143. "First Razakar camp in Khulna turns into ghost house after Liberation War". www.observerbd.com. Retrieved 26 April 2023.
144. Sharlach, Lisa (2000). "Rape as Genocide: Bangladesh, the Former Yugoslavia, and Rwanda". New Political Science. 22 (1): 92–93. doi:10.1080/713687893. S2CID   144966485.
145. Sajjad, Tazreena (2012) [First published 2009]. "The Post-Genocidal Period and its Impact on Women". In Totten, Samuel (ed.). Plight and Fate of Women During and Following Genocide. Transaction Publishers. p. 225. ISBN   978-1-4128-4759-9.
146. Mamoon, Muntassir. "Al-Badr". Banglapedia. Bangladesh Asiatic Society. Retrieved 4 September 2016.
147. Sisson, Richard; Rose, Leo E. (1991). War and Secession: Pakistan, India, and the Creation of Bangladesh. University of California Press. p. 165. ISBN   978-0-520-07665-5.
148. "Pakistan's first two militant Islamist groups, Al-Badar and Al-Shams – by Nadeem F. Paracha". LUBP. Archived from the original on 27 December 2015. Retrieved 29 December 2015.
149. Karlekar, Hiranmay (2005). Bangladesh: The Next Afghanistan? . SAGE. p. 149. ISBN   978-0-7619-3401-1.
150. "Govt publishes list of Razakars". The Daily Star. 16 December 2019.
151. Kann, Peter R. (27 July 1971). "East Pakistan Is Seen Gaining Independence, But It Will Take Years". The Wall Street Journal.
152. Bangladesh 2018 International Religious Freedom Report, US State Department (2019), pages 11–12
153. 2004  Congressional Record, Vol. 150, Page  H3057 (17 May 2004)
154. "Home – Noakhali Noakhali". Noakhalinoakhali.webs.com. Archived from the original on 11 April 2012. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
155. "Hindu areas in Ctg still out of listing". The Daily Star. Retrieved 16 August 2016.

Bibliography

• Nasrin, Taslim (2014). Lajja . Penguin Books. ISBN   9-789-351-18643-4. OCLC   1132343651.
• Benkin, Richard L. (2014). A Quiet Case of Ethnic Cleansing (The Murder of Bangladesh's Hindus). Akshaya Prakashan. ISBN   9-788-188-64352-3.
• Rummel, Rudolf J. (1998). Statistics of Democide (Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900). LIT Publications. ISBN   9-783-825-84010-5.
• Ahmed, Babu; Chowdhury, Nazly (2005). Alam, Md. Shafiqul (ed.). Selected Hindu Temples of Bangladesh. University of Michigan: UNESCO, Dhaka. ISBN   9-789-843-21778-3.
• Murshid, Ghulam (25 January 2018). Bengali Culture Over a Thousand Years. Niyogi Books. ISBN   978-93-86906-12-0.
• Bandyopadhyay, Sekhar (19 August 2004). Caste, Culture and Hegemony: Social Dominance in Colonial Bengal. SAGE Publications. ISBN   978-0-7619-9849-5.
• Lorea, Carola (11 August 2016). Folklore, Religion and the Songs of a Bengali Madman: A Journey Between Performance and the Politics of Cultural Representation. BRILL. ISBN   978-90-04-32471-8.

External links

• "Bangladesh". CIA Factbook . 17 May 2022.
• "Bangladesh Hindus 'will not go back'". BBC News. 22 November 2001.
• "HAF Report Summary on Bangladeshi Hindus". HAF . Archived from the original on 27 September 2007.
• "Bangladesh minority report". Amnesty International. Archived from the original on 13 September 2006.