Non-Sinoxenic pronunciations

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Non-Sinoxenic pronunciations are vocabularies borrowed from Chinese, but differ from Sinoxenic pronunciations in that:

Contents

  • The corresponding Chinese writing system is not borrowed alongside the pronunciation
  • The pronunciation did not arise from the attempt at adopting Chinese as the literary language
  • The borrowed vocabulary is not limited to Classical Chinese, but often includes modern and colloquial forms of Chinese

As such, non-Sinoxenic pronunciations are therefore loanwords in which the corresponding Chinese character is not adopted. These non-Sinoxenic pronunciations are thus most prominent in Asian languages in which cultural exchanges with Chinese culture occurred (e.g. Mongolian, Central Asian or Turkic languages), but the adoption of the Chinese writing system did not occur. This also includes non-Sinitic languages within China (e.g. Tibetan, Uyghur, Hani, Zhuang, Hmong). While the Sinoxenic model has traditionally held the limelight as the most distinctive and influential model for the borrowing of Chinese vocabulary, it is not the only model. For Sinoxenic languages, pronunciations are regarded as non-Sinoxenic if there is a mismatch between the vocabulary and the codified Sinoxenic pronunciation.

Mongolian

Timespan

Chronologically, Mongolian borrowing of Chinese vocabulary took place later than that of the Sinoxenic languages. [1] In contrast to Sinoxenic vocabulary, Sino-Mongolian vocabulary is not the result of an attempt to adopt Chinese as the literary language or the adoption of the Chinese writing system as a whole. The majority of Mongolian loanwords from Chinese occurred in the last 800 years, sourced from Early, Middle, and Modern Mandarin as spoken in northern China, rather than Classical Chinese, as in the case of Sinospheric cultures.

Indirect and direct borrowing

Modes of borrowing are not uniform. Some vocabulary was borrowed indirectly, such as the term for writing, bichig (Mongolian script: ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ᠌; Mongolian Cyrillic: бичиг), which appears to have entered from Turkic in ancient times. Bichig derives from biir (ᠪᠢᠷ; Mongolian Cyrillic: бийр), which was adopted from Tibetan for writing instrument, pir (Tibetan: པིར), which itself is derived from the Chinese word for pen or writing brush (Chinese :; pinyin :).

In more recent times, most words have been borrowed directly. Some are starkly different from the Chinese pronunciation because of the long time for pronunciations to change or because of impressionistic auditory borrowing. One example is the word for window, tsonkh (Mongolian script: ᠴᠣᠩᠬᠣ; Mongolian Cyrillic: цонх), from Chinese chuānghu (Chinese :窗戶). Similarly, the word for peace, taivang (Mongolian script: ᠲᠠᠢᠢᠪᠣᠩ; Mongolian Cyrillic: тайван) is supposedly from Chinese tàipíng (Chinese :太平), which also means peace. Note that the traditional spelling (which equates to 'taibung') makes no attempt to reproduce the original vowel in 平 'píng'.

Although the traditional Mongolian script often tends to highlight the original Chinese pronunciation, the Cyrillic orthography, which spells words as they are pronounced, obscures the connection with Chinese. For instance, the syllable-final н in the Cyrillic script is pronounced /ŋ/ in Mongolia, thus neutralising the earlier distinction between /ŋ/ and /n/ in this position and further obscuring the regularity of relationships with Chinese. The distinction between /ŋ/ and /n/ is retained in Inner Mongolian dialects.

Examples

Note that the following examples are in the context of non-Sinoxenic vocabulary that exist in the Mongolian language.

The Sinoxenic languages of Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese are included for comparative purposes. Words that do not actually occur in the Sinoxenic languages are given in their Sinoxenic reading but are greyed out. The absence of these terms in Sinoxenic languages suggests that the borrowing of Chinese in Mongolian is attributed to a more recent form of a Sinitic language (such as Early Mandarin and Middle Mandarin), rather than Classical Chinese.

Artisan occupations [2]
MeaningChinese charactersChinese pronunciationMongolianMongolian ScriptJapaneseKoreanVietnamese
Brassfounder 銅匠ㄊㄨㄥˊ ㄐㄧㄤˋ
tóngjiàng
түнжаан
(tünǰaan)
ᠳᠥᠨᠵᠢᠶᠠᠩ
(tünǰiyaŋ)
どうしょう
(dōshō)
동장
(dongjang)
đồng tượng
Carpenter 木匠ㄇㄨˋ ㄐㄧㄤˋ
mùjiàng
мужаан
(muǰaan)
ᠮᠤᠵᠢᠶᠠᠩ
(muǰiyaŋ)
ぼくしょう
(bokushō)
or
もくしょう
(mokushō)
목장
(mokjang)
mộc tượng
Ironworker 鐵匠ㄊㄧㄝˇ ㄐㄧㄤˋ
tiějiàng
тижаан
(tiǰaan)
ᠲᠢᠵᠢᠶᠠᠩ
(tiǰiyaŋ)
てっしょう
(tesshō)
철장
(cheoljang)
thiết tượng
Silversmith 銀匠ㄧㄣˊ ㄐㄧㄤˋ
yínjiàng
инжаан
(inǰaan)
ᠢᠨᠵᠢᠶᠠᠩ
(inǰiyaŋ)
ぎんしょう
(ginshō)
은장
(eunjang)
ngân tượng
Stonemason 石匠ㄕˊ ㄐㄧㄤˋ
shíjiàng
шожоон
(šoǰoon)
ᠱᠤᠵᠢᠶᠠᠩ
(šoǰiyaŋ)
せきしょう
(sekishō)
석장
(seokjang)
thạch tượng
Food related [3]
MeaningChinese charactersChinese pronunciationMongolianMongolian ScriptJapaneseKoreanVietnamese
Gourd 葫蘆 ㄏㄨˊ ㄌㄨˊ
húlu
хулуу
(xuluu)
ᠬᠣᠯᠣ
(xulu)
ころ
(koro)
호로
(horo)
hồ lô
Green pepper 青椒ㄑㄧㄥ ㄐㄧㄠ
qīngjiāo
чинжүү
(činjüü)
ᠴᠢᠨᠵᠦᠦ
(činǰüü)
or
ᠴᠢᠩ ᠵᠢᠶᠣᠣ
(čiŋ ǰiyuu)
せいしょう
(seishō)
청초
(cheongcho)
thanh tiêu
Peanut花生ㄏㄨㄚ ㄕㄥ
huāshēng
хуасан
(xuasan)
ᠬᠣᠸᠠᠱᠧᠩ
(xuwašEŋ)
かせい
(kasei)
화생
(hwasaeng)
hoa sinh
Pepper
(spice)
花椒ㄏㄨㄚ ㄐㄧㄠ
huājiāo
хуажуу
(xuaǰuu)
ᠬᠣᠸᠠᠵᠣᠣ
(xuwaǰuu)
かしょう
(kashō)
화초
(hwacho)
hoa tiêu
Radish 蘿蔔 ㄌㄨㄛˊ ㄅㄨˇ
luóbo
лууван
(luuvan)
ᠯᠣᠣᠪᠠᠩ
(luubaŋ)
らふく,
(rafuku)
or
らほく
(rahoku)
나복
(nabok)
or
라복
(rabok)
la bặc
Steamed bread (or dumpling)饅頭ㄇㄢˊ ㄊㄡˊ
mántou
мантуу [4]
(mantuu)
ᠮᠠᠨᠲᠠᠣ
(mantau)
まんとう
(mantō)
만두
(mandu)
màn thầu
Teapot茶壺ㄔㄚˊ ㄏㄨˊ
cháhú
саахуу
(saaxuu)
ᠰᠠᠬᠣᠣ
(saxuu)
ちゃこ
(chako)
차호 [5]
(chaho)
trà ho, chè ho

Korean

Sinoxenic vs non-Sinoxenic

Although Sino-Korean vocabulary dominates the spectrum of borrowed Chinese words, there are non-Sinoxenic words in Korean that are derived from Chinese. In such cases, the corresponding pronunciation for the Chinese character (hanja) does not match the borrowed vocabulary. Such loanwords most likely preserve a slightly different form of a Sinitic language from the one codified in Sino-Korean, thus making such words Chinese borrowings with a non-Sinoxenic pronunciation.

Examples

Brush
  • The Korean term for brush, but (), is derived from Middle Korean but (붇), which, in turn, is most likely derived from Early Middle Chinese. However, the Sino-Korean pronunciation for brush 筆 was codified (and is pronounced) as pil (필).
Ink
  • The Korean term for ink, meok (), is most likely derived from the Early Middle Chinese term for ink (墨), but actually, the Sino-Korean reading for 墨 was codified (and is pronounced) as muk (묵).
Horse
  • The Korean term for horse, mal (), may have been derived from the Early Middle Chinese term for horse (馬), but actually, the Sino-Korean reading for 馬 was codified (and is pronounced) as ma (마). However, considering the Mongolic word for horse, mori, shows a trace of the l/r consonant in mal (Korean mal becomes mari in the nominative case), it is unlikely to be a Chinese loanword.

Old Chinese cognates

A few native Korean words closely resemble reconstructed pronunciations of Old Chinese that was spoken at least 2000 years ago in China. It's unclear if these words are borrowed from Old Chinese, or if Old Chinese borrowed these words from an ancient Koreanic language, or if these words are borrowed from another language (i.e. both Old Korean and Old Chinese borrowed from another language), or if these words are descended from a common proto language, or if these words are false cognates by mere chance. These words may not be the case of non-Sinoxenic pronunciations.

Examples

Wind
  • The Korean term for wind, baram (바람), may have been derived from the Old Chinese term for wind, /*prəm/ (), but the Sino-Korean reading for 風 was codified (and is pronounced) as pung (풍).
Taste
  • The Korean term for taste, mat / mas- (), may have been derived from the Old Chinese term for taste, /*mɯds/ (), but the Sino-Korean reading for 味 was codified (and is pronounced) as mi (미).
Bowl
  • The Korean term for bowl, geureut / geureus- (그릇), may have been derived from the Old Chinese term for container, /*kʰrɯds/ (), but the Sino-Korean reading for 器 was codified (and is pronounced) as gi (기).
Comb
  • The Korean term for comb, bit / bis- (), may have been derived from the Old Chinese term for comb, /*bis/ (), but the Sino-Korean reading for 篦 was codified (and is pronounced) as bi (비).
River
  • The Korean term for river, garam (가람), may have been derived from the Old Chinese term for river, /*kroːŋ/ (), but the Sino-Korean reading for 江 was codified (and is pronounced) as gang (강).
Bear
  • The Korean term for bear, gom (), may have been derived from the Old Chinese term for bear, /*ɢʷlɯm/ (), but the Sino-Korean reading for 熊 was codified (and is pronounced) as ung (웅).
Dragon
  • The Korean term for dragon, mireu (미르), may have been derived from the Old Chinese term for dragon, /*mroːŋ/ (), but the Sino-Korean reading for 龍 was codified (and is pronounced) as ryong (룡).
Street
  • The Korean term for street, geori (거리), may have been derived from the Old Chinese term for street, /*kreː/ (), but the Sino-Korean reading for 街 was codified (and is pronounced) as ga (가).

Vietnamese

Some Sinologists such as Wang Li have attempted to classify words of Chinese origins into at least three categories: old or pre-Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary, Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary, and nativized Chinese vocabulary. Among the three, only Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary is considered to have a Sino-Xenic pronunciation, borrowed from Classical Chinese. The other two were introduced verbally through colloquial speech and are not as systematic, especially in terms of the lack of consistent correspondence between the tones of Vietnamese tones and the four tones of Middle Chinese. Some dictionaries, such as that of Thiều Chửu, may consider some pre-Sino-Vietnamese syllables to be Sino-Vietnamese.

Consequences of the multiple layers of borrowing are doublets and alternative readings:

Traditional Chinese Middle Chinese Pre-Sino-Vietnamese
(non-Sino-Xenic)
Sino-Vietnamese
(Sino-Xenic)
Nativized Chinese
(non-Sino-Xenic)
Gloss
kæHgảgiáto marry off
kæHcảgiáprice
pjuXbúaphủhammer
bjubùaphùspell; charm
bjutBụtPhậtBuddha
hæHhạsummer
tsyhæxexawheeled vehicle
mjɨjHMùivịzodiac goat
mjɨjHmùivịsmell; taste
hjwevịbecause
lwijHloạiloàikind; species
ngwajHngoạingoàioutside
kjængHkínhgươngmirror
kjæmHkiếmgươmsword
kiHghito write
pekbíchváchwall
pænXbảnvánplank; board

Apart from these old borrowings, which are deeply integrated into Vietnamese, there are also phonetic borrowings of Yue or Cantonese origin, such as lì xì , lạp xưởng , xíu mại , xí ngầu , hầm bà lằng , and tả pín lù . These words were also borrowed through the spoken language and, unlike Sino-Vietnamese, also are not systematic. They are especially common in southern Vietnam, which has a significant population of Chinese, known as the Hoa ethnic group. A lot of these pronunciations came from recent Cantonese migration to southern Vietnam during the 17th–20th centuries. [6] Most of the Cantonese eventually settled down in Chợ Lớn, [7] and they introduced their cuisine to Vietnam. Thus, many Cantonese borrowings in Vietnamese are food-related.

Chinese charactersCantoneseTeochewVietnamese borrowingSino-Vietnamese pronunciation
豉油 'soy sauce'si6 jau4xì dầuthị du
點心 'dim sum, Cantonese food'dim2 sam1điểm sấmđiểm tâm
雲吞, 餛飩 'wonton'wan4 tan1, wan4 tan4-1vằn thắn, hoành thánhvân thôn, hồn đồn
饅頭 'mantou'maan6 tau4màn thầuman đầu
燒賣 'shumai'siu1 maai6-2xíu mạithiêu mại
臘腸 'Chinese sausage; lap cheong'laap6 coeng4-2lạp xưởnglạp tràng/trường
蝦餃 'har gow'haa1 gaau2há cảohà giảo
水圓 'tangyuan'seoi2 jyun4sủi dìnthuỷ viên
叉燒 'char siu'caa1 siu1xá xíuxoa thiêu
酸梅 'smoked plum'syun1 mui4xí muộitoan mai
白小 'white coffee'baak6 siu2bạc xỉubạch tiểu
咖椰 'coconut jam'gaa3 je4ca déca da
豆腐 'douhua'dau6 fu6tàu hủđậu hủ
清補涼 'ching bo leung'cing1 bou2 loeng4-2sâm bổ lượngthanh bổ lương
芥蘭 'gai lan'gaai3 laan4-2cải làngiới lan
味精 'Monosodium glutamate'mei6 zing1mì chínhvị tinh
腩 'flank beef'naam5nạm [lower-alpha 1] nạm
香港 'Hong Kong'hoeng1 gong2Hồng KôngHương Cảng (dated name)
我愛你 'I love you'ngo5 oi3 nei5ngộ ái nị (humorous, is rarely used)ngã ái nhĩ
幸 'lucky'hang6hênhạnh
利市 'red envelope'lai6 si6lì xìlợi thị
馬刀 'machete'maa5 dou1mã tấumã đao
抵制 'to boycott'dai2 zai3tẩy chayđể chế
曬冷 'to let go of all restraints'saai3 laang5-1xả lángsái lãnh
冚唪唥 'mixed; mingled; miscellaneous'ham6 baang6 laang6hầm bà lằng(no reading) phủng (no reading) [lower-alpha 2]
死 'to die; ugly; bad'sei2, si2xí (slang)tử
衰鬼 'unlucky'seoi1 gwai2xúi quẩysuy quỷ
食 'to eat'sik6xực (slang)thực
長衫 'cheongsam'coeng4 saam1xường xámtrường sam
小 'tiny'siu2xíutiểu
一 'the best'jat1(số) dáchnhất
十四十五 'to cheat'sap6 sei3 sap6 ng5xập xí xập ngầuthập tứ thập ngũ
四五 'die [as in dice])sei3 ng5xí ngầutứ ngũ
麻雀 'mahjong'maa4 zoek3mạt chượcma tước
打邊爐 'Chinese hotpot'daa2 bin1 lou4tả pín lùđả biên lô
爐 'hotpot'lou5lẩu
薄餅 'popiah'boh8 bian2bò bíabạc bánh
粿條 'kuyteav'guê2 diou5hủ tiếuquả điều
仙草 'grass jelly'siêng1 cao2sương sáotiên thảo

Zhuang

According to Zev Handel, Sino-Zhuang is the term used to describe pronunciations in the Zhuang language that are used to read Chinese characters. These borrowings are borrowed from Old Chinese to present-day Chinese. However, there were no large scale borrowings or formal standardised readings of Chinese characters such as seen during the development of the Sino-xenic languages such as Vietnamese. [8] These readings were unsystematically borrowed.

Chinese characters Middle Chinese ZhuangGloss
ngaXngohI; me
'aepepto force
dajHdaihbig; large
kwokguekcountry

Other examples

Radish

The word "radish" in Chinese (simplified Chinese :萝卜; traditional Chinese :蘿蔔; pinyin :luóbo) was attested in various forms since early Old Chinese. This is the source of the terms for "radish" and "turnip" in Sinoxenic languages like Korean (나복, nabok; or 라복, rabok) and it has also been adopted in a non-Sinoxenic way by many other languages in China and elsewhere in Asia. In Mongolian as spoken in Mongolia, its meaning has shifted to refer to a carrot, while radish is referred to as tsagaan luuvan (Mongolian : Цагаан лууван, lit.'white carrot').

Radish [9]
ChineseHmongIndonesianMalaysianMongolianTibetanUyghurZhuang
萝卜 (蘿蔔) ㄌㄨㄛˊ ㄅㄛ
luóbo
lauj pwm
or
lwj pwm
lobaklobakлууван
(luuvan)

refers to "carrot"

ལ་ཕུག
(la phug)
لوبو
(lobo)
or
لوبۇ
(lobu)
lauxbaeg

Notes

  1. This borrowing is from the meaning rather than the pronunciation.
  2. Two of the characters, specifically 冚 and 唥, are characters used mainly in Cantonese, thus there are no Sino-Vietnamese readings for these characters.

See also

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Korean mixed script is a form of writing the Korean language that uses a mixture of the Korean alphabet or hangul and hanja, the Korean name for Chinese characters. The distribution on how to write words usually follows that all native Korean words, including suffixes, particles, and honorific markers are generally written in hangul and never in hanja. Sino-Korean vocabulary or hanja-eo, either words borrowed from Chinese or created from Sino-Korean roots, were generally always written in hanja, although very rare or complex characters were often substituted with hangul. Although the Korean alphabet was introduced and taught to people beginning in 1446, most literature until the early twentieth century was written in literary Chinese known as hanmun.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chinese family of scripts</span> Writing systems descended from oracle bone script

The Chinese family of scripts includes writing systems used to write various East Asian languages, that ultimately descend from the oracle bone script invented in the Yellow River valley during the Shang dynasty. These include written Chinese itself, as well as adaptations of it for other languages, such as Japanese kanji, Korean hanja, Vietnamese chữ Hán and chữ Nôm, Zhuang sawndip, and Bai bowen. More divergent are the Tangut script, Khitan large script, Khitan small script and its offspring, the Jurchen script, as well as the Yi script, Sui script, and Geba syllabary, which were inspired by written Chinese but not descended directly from it. While written Chinese and many of its descendant scripts are logographic, others are phonetic, including the kana, Nüshu, and Lisu syllabaries, as well as the bopomofo semi-syllabary.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet</span> Writing system of standard Mongolian in Mongolia

The Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet is the writing system used for the standard dialect of the Mongolian language in the modern state of Mongolia. It has a largely phonemic orthography, meaning that there is a fair degree of consistency in the representation of individual sounds. Cyrillic has not been adopted as the writing system in the Inner Mongolia region of China, which continues to use the traditional Mongolian script.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chữ Hán</span> Chinese characters used in Vietnamese writing

Chữ Hán is the term for Chinese characters in Vietnamese. Chữ Hán are used to write Literary Chinese and Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary in the Vietnamese language. They were officially used in Vietnam after the Red River Delta region was incorporated into the Han dynasty and continued to be used until the early 20th century where usage of Literary Chinese was abolished alongside the Confucian court examinations causing chữ Hán to fall into obscurity.

References

  1. "When borrowing from Chinese isn't "Sinoxenic"" . Retrieved 2 November 2016.
  2. Балжинням, Надмидын (2011). Монгол хэлний Хятад ормол үгийн судалгаа = 蒙语中进入的汉语词汇研究 : Хятад-Монгол-Орос-Англи дүймэнтэй. Ulaanbaatar: Udam Soël. pp.  http://www.worldcat.org/title/mongol-khelnii-khiatad-ormol-ugiin-sudalgaa-meng-yu-zhong-jin-ru-de-han-yu-ci-hui-yan-jiu-khiatad-mongol-oros-angli-duimentei/oclc/719583485. ISBN   9789996283871.
  3. Балжинням, Надмидын (2011). Монгол хэлний Хятад ормол үгийн судалгаа = 蒙语中进入的汉语词汇研究 : Хятад-Монгол-Орос-Англи дүймэнтэй. Ulaanbaatar: Udam Soël. pp.  http://www.worldcat.org/title/mongol-khelnii-khiatad-ormol-ugiin-sudalgaa-meng-yu-zhong-jin-ru-de-han-yu-ci-hui-yan-jiu-khiatad-mongol-oros-angli-duimentei/oclc/719583485. ISBN   9789996283871.
  4. "Сэвсгэр, зөөлөн мантуу хийх арга". Mongolcom. Retrieved 3 November 2016.
  5. "자사차호 초기 양호법". slowblog. Retrieved 3 November 2016.
  6. Trần, Khánh (1993). The Ethnic Chinese and Economic Development in Vietnam. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN   9789813016675.
  7. Shodhganga. Socio-Economic Background of the Hoa People. p. 34.
  8. Handel, Zev (2019). Sinography: The Borrowing and Adaptation of the Chinese Script. Brill. pp. 238–239. ISBN   9789004386327.
  9. Балжинням, Надмидын (2011). Монгол хэлний Хятад ормол үгийн судалгаа = 蒙语中进入的汉语词汇研究 : Хятад-Монгол-Орос-Англи дүймэнтэй. Ulaanbaatar: Udam Soël. pp.  http://www.worldcat.org/title/mongol-khelnii-khiatad-ormol-ugiin-sudalgaa-meng-yu-zhong-jin-ru-de-han-yu-ci-hui-yan-jiu-khiatad-mongol-oros-angli-duimentei/oclc/719583485. ISBN   9789996283871.