Protest paradigm

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WPIX reporter interviews Occupy Wall Street protester Occupy Wall Street News Media 2011 Shankbone.JPG
WPIX reporter interviews Occupy Wall Street protester

The protest paradigm is a set of propagandistic news coverage patterns common in the mainstream media that delegitimizes, downplays, and unfavorably represents protesters. Outlets that use the paradigm often fail to cover nonviolent protests altogether or favor what could be considered "pro-establishment" narratives when they do. The paradigm is largely driven by ad revenue incentives in countries with a commercial media model and by partisan politics. It is more prevalent in the United States than in many other countries.

Contents

Characteristics

The primary characteristics of the protest paradigm include the following:

Driving forces

The reason commercial media systems "prioritize privileged groups over the minoritized" [6] is largely because media outlets overwhelmingly favor advertisement-based models for generating revenue. [7] : 14  Because revenue generation in media outlets is driven by ads, media outlets are incentivized to promote news cycle narratives that are likely to be perceived positively by "affluent" audiences, who are more likely to purchase ads compared with "down-scale" audiences. [7] : 14 

Narratives in news cycles are usually pro-establishment when affluent individuals feel threatened and more progressive when goals of affluent individuals align with the objectives of a protest. [7] : 14  For example, according to this theory, the reason why there was negative press coverage [3] [8] [4] during the Occupy Wall Street protests was because affluent individuals felt threatened by how the protests opposed economic inequality, so in order to appeal to their affluent audiences, mainstream media outlets such as The New York Times , The Boston Globe , and USA Today [3] portrayed these protests negatively. However, when a movement is less likely to harm affluent individuals, it is less likely to be reported on negatively, such as during the Great American Boycott protests which received positive press from the Los Angeles Times largely because the protests aligned with the interests of the "wealthy elite in terms of meeting their needs for a large labor force to staff businesses and provide residential services." [1]

Media outlets that do not tailor narratives toward affluent audiences tend to make less money than those who do, often resulting in outlets that do not follow the protest paradigm being driven out of the mainstream. [7] : 11  [8] Consequently, non-mainstream media outlets are more likely than mainstream outlets to give positive news coverage to protests. [8] News outlets in the mainstream are also more likely to follow the protest paradigm in countries with a commercial media model. [7] : 11  [8]

In issues with a partisan divide, another driving factor of the protest paradigm in the US is the political party with which a media outlet aligns, often leading to use of the paradigm to discredit protests aligned with opposing political views. [9] [10]

Factors

Scholars identified two dimensions of news coverage: substance (low- or high-depth of coverage of protester action and demands) and sentiment (favorable or unfavorable framing). [5]

Four types of news coverage [5]
UnfavorableFavorable
High substanceHard news
"Police issue repeated warnings to protesters violating campus space rule 123"		Good news
"Students picket on campus to protest Senate Bill 123, police threaten arrest"
Low substanceBad news
"Controversial demonstrations are harmful to campus atmosphere"		Soft news
"Protesters appear on campus"

Good news

Good news in the US is more likely to occur when journalists cover engagement in bipartisan electoral politics. [5] Good news is also more likely when journalists engage "deeply and frequently with a community," and studies claim that student journalism [11] and non-mainstream media outlets [8] tend to do this better than mainstream media outlets.

Bad news, hard news, and soft news

Bad news coverage is more likely when protesters engage in violence or when protesters are investigated or charged with crimes; [5] hard news coverage is more likely when there are labor strikes; [5] and soft news coverage is more likely when covering civic action or third party candidates in electoral politics. [5] The more radical a protest group is, the more likely they are to receive bad or hard news coverage. [1] [10] Bad and hard news is also more likely when protests are critical of media coverage. [10]

News outlets often focus on how protests violate social norms, such as through drawing attention to protesters who dress in unusual ways, [1] [3] violate laws, [1] or hold minority views in public opinion polling. [1] Outlets also often draw attention to the idea that protesters who violate the status quo are "politically deviant." [3]

Some scholars argue mainstream media framing of violent protests in a negative way without examining whether violence is acceptable on a case-by-case basis undermines the idea that violence is in some cases a morally legitimate action against oppressive systems. [2] Others argue the protest paradigm "weakens the influence of social protest in public opinion," making the general public perceive them as "illegitimate troublemakers," wasting their time, and "a threat to social order." [3]

Nonviolent protests and lack of coverage

The type of coverage a nonviolent protest receives depends significantly on the issue being covered. [5] Nonviolent protests are less likely to receive any news coverage at all because they are often deemed "not newsworthy," [1] and one study found a high correlation between the number of arrests at Occupy Wall Street and the number of New York Times stories per week. [4]

As a result of how nonviolent protests often receive little news coverage, protesters are more likely to engage in violence in order to secure media attention, thereby endangering themselves. [1] For example, the Women Against Pornography movement in Minneapolis was largely ignored until protesters "ransacked an adult bookstore," anarchists in Minneapolis only received attention after demolishing a TV set and shaming a Marine recruiting station's windows, and the 1999 Seattle WTO protests only received national coverage after protesters engaged in street violence with riot police. [1] When news coverage emerges after nonviolent protests turn violent, it is usually in the form of bad or hard news [1] and often focuses on details of the conflict rather than the issues being advocated by protesters. [4]

Political alignment

When good news explains "the goals and background of a protest" in order to legitimize and humanize protesters, those in the US with conservative political beliefs tend to perceive such news as less credible, whereas those with liberal political beliefs tend to perceive such news as more credible. [6]

The protest paradigm is more likely to be utilized in politically conservative newspapers. [10] For example, right-wing media outlets are more likely to invoke the protest paradigm than left-wing outlets regarding Black Lives Matter protests in order to discredit the movement. [9] [12]

Different countries

The mainstream media is more likely in the US than in other countries to "delegitimize coverage of protests that relate to racism or colonialism," whereas countries like China and India are less likely to do so. [6] US media was also more likely to use the protest paradigm than United Kingdom media when covering the Iraq war protests. US media is more likely than the Belgian press to use the protest paradigm. [4]

Examples

United States

Occupy Wall Street

Protester holds sign accusing mainstream media outlets of refusing to cover the Occupy Wall Street protests Day 12 Occupy Wall Street September 28 2011 Shankbone 31.JPG
Protester holds sign accusing mainstream media outlets of refusing to cover the Occupy Wall Street protests
These paragraphs are an excerpt from Occupy Wall Street.[ edit ]
Occupy Wall Street (OWS) was a left-wing populist movement against economic inequality, capitalism, corporate greed, big finance, and the influence of money in politics. It began in Zuccotti Park, located in New York City's Financial District, and lasted for fifty-nine days—from September 17 to November 15, 2011. [13]

A study found that five marginalization devices account for 66% of the variability in tone of mainstream media coverage of OWS (in order from most to least important): public disapproval, negative impact, show, ineffective goals, and lawlessness. [3] Another study found that while mainstream media characterized OWS as "lackluster," "confusing," and using a dismissive tone, non-mainstream news sources were more likely to emphasize "the strength and diversity of its protesters and demonstrators." [8] A third study found news coverage peaked during conflict between police and protesters and that there were periods of public disinterest between each conflict. [4]

Specific examples

USA Today invoked the protest paradigm in multiple articles, [3] including one (now syndicated to ABC News) titled "Wall Street rallies become new brand of tourism," where they characterized OWS as a "carnival," downplayed its turnout, and extensively quoted a passerby who implied the movement was out of touch and unrealistic. [a] [14]

Ginia Bellafante of The New York Times wrote an article titled "Gunning for Wall Street, With Faulty Aim" [15] which, among other NYT articles, [3] invoked the protest paradigm, characterizing OWS as a "carnival," drawing attention to low initial turnout, and extensively quoting a Wall Street trader who made condescending remarks about protesters. [b] [15]

Joanna Weiss of The Boston Globe invoked the protest paradigm in an article titled "The right way to get heard" in which she characterized OWS as a "circus," said "too many Americans have jobs" for OWS to be realistic, and advocated Elizabeth Warren as a better alternative to the movement. [c] [16]

Black Lives Matter protests

Overhead view of George Floyd protests Civil Unrest 2020 5C2A6287R.jpg
Overhead view of George Floyd protests
These paragraphs are an excerpt from Black Lives Matter.[ edit ]
Black Lives Matter (BLM) is a decentralized political and social movement [17] [18] that aims to highlight racism, discrimination and racial inequality experienced by black people, and to promote anti-racism. Its primary concerns are police brutality and racially motivated violence against black people. [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] The movement began in response to the killings of Trayvon Martin, Michael Brown, Eric Garner, and Rekia Boyd, among others. BLM and its related organizations typically advocate for various policy changes related to black liberation [24] and criminal justice reform. While there are specific organizations that label themselves "Black Lives Matter", such as the Black Lives Matter Global Network Foundation, the overall movement is a decentralized network with no formal hierarchy. [25] As of 2021, there are about 40 chapters in the United States and Canada. [17] The slogan "Black Lives Matter" itself has not been trademarked by any group. [26]
These paragraphs are an excerpt from George Floyd protests.[ edit ]
The George Floyd protests were a series of protests, riots, and demonstrations against police brutality that began in Minneapolis in the United States on May 26, 2020. [27] [28] The protests and civil unrest began as reactions to the murder of George Floyd, a 46-year-old unarmed African American man, by city police during an arrest. They spread nationally and internationally. Veteran officer Derek Chauvin was recorded as kneeling on Floyd's neck for 9 minutes and 29 seconds; Floyd complained of not being able to breathe, [29] but three other officers looked on and prevented passersby from intervening. [36] Chauvin and the other three officers involved were fired and later arrested. [37] In April 2021, Chauvin was found guilty of second-degree murder, third-degree murder, and second-degree manslaughter. [38] In June 2021, Chauvin was sentenced to 22+1⁄2 years in prison. [39]

Studies examined the amount of times different news outlets used the word "riot" to describe BLM protests (which were overwhelmingly peaceful) [40] [41] and found a partisan divide: left-wing outlets such as CNN and MSNBC used the term "riot" to describe BLM 0.46 times and 0.24 times per story respectively, whereas right-wing outlets like Fox News used the term 1.15 times per story. [9] Studies found a similar divide among the same news sources when examining the use of the word "rioters" to describe BLM protesters and when examining positive versus negative framing of BLM protests. [9]

Another study rated news organizations by how likely they were to characterize the movement as riots instead of protests; in order from most to least, these were Fox News , The Washington Post , Wall Street Journal , New York Times , CNN , New York Post , MSNBC , and Al Jazeera . [42] It also found that among articles written these news outlets, between 2% ( Fox News ) and 7% ( Al Jazeera ) of paragraphs mentioned police brutality, between 10% ( Fox News ) and 35% ( The Washington Post ) of paragraphs mentioned racial elements (like the protests being anti-racist), and between 4% ( Al Jazeera ) and 19% ( Fox News ) of paragraphs mentioned Donald Trump's response. [42]

One study found that Associated Press , CNN , and Fox News frequently engaged in the protest paradigm, whereas MSNBC produced less coverage overall but was more legitimizing. [12]

A report by multiple groups including the Annenberg School at the University of Pennsylvania found that among three newspapers ( Minneapolis Star-Tribune , the Louisville Courier-Journal , and the Philadelphia Inquirer ), police sources were more common than community-based sources; dehumanizing language such as "suspect," "juvenile," and "offender" were used to portray civilians targeted by police; protests were often framed as threats to public order; police violence was described with "distancing" language such as by describing officer force as an "officer-involved shooting"; outlets did not make a lacking connection between police violence and police accountability; and the rallying cry "defund the police" (used frequently by protesters) received little explanation in terms of its policy implications. [43]

Even though conservative outlets were more likely to engage in the protest paradigm, both liberal and conservative outlets both engaged in the protest paradigm, [12] such as by disproportionately focusing on violent demonstrations [41] [44] even though they were overwhelmingly peaceful. [40] [41] Studies have indicated this has contributed to a "decline in public support for the BLM movement," especially among the white population. [41]

Specific examples

Caitlin McFall of Fox News invoked the protest paradigm in an article titled "[Start of article.] Cities reeling from violent riots tighten restrictions, implement curfews as National Guard deployed," characterizing the protests broadly as "mayhem, chaos, and wreckage," extensively quoting government officials without similarly quoting protester views, and using language sympathetic to authorities. [d] [45]

In an article invoking the protest paradigm titled "For 48 hours, the nation's capital was gripped by chaos. Then everything changed," Peter Jamison, Marissa J. Lang, and Fenit Nirappil of The Washington Post framed the protests using the "city gripped by chaos" narrative, focusing disproportionately on high-action scenes, and characterizing the protesters' side as needing to be "brought discipline" without explaining motives or arguments in favor of the protests. [e] [46]

Gaza war protests

Protester holds sign accusing BBC of biased coverage of the Gaza war What would Orwell have thought of the BBC's Pro-Israel propaganda (53335024694).jpg
Protester holds sign accusing BBC of biased coverage of the Gaza war
These paragraphs are an excerpt from Gaza war protests.[ edit ]
The Gaza war has sparked protests, demonstrations, and vigils around the world. [47] These protests focused on a variety of issues related to the conflict, including demands for a ceasefire, an end to the Israeli blockade and occupation, return of Israeli hostages, protesting war crimes, ending US support for Israel and providing humanitarian aid to Gaza. Since the war began on 7 October 2023, the death toll has exceeded 60,000. [48]

According to Dr. Brown of Michigan State University, the protesters are, in the words of one protester, focused on "uplifting the voices of Gazans, of Palestinians facing genocide." [49] She claims core elements in nearly all Gaza war protests include "grievances, demands, disruption, confrontation and spectacle," but that confrontation and spectacle are covered extensively by media outlets whereas grievances and demands are neglected. [49] She also claims official statements are much more commonly cited than those protesters. [49]

Specific examples

Brandon Truitt of WBZ-TV ( CBS News Boston) invoked the protest paradigm in an article titled "13 arrested, 4 Boston police officers hurt in violent pro-Palestinian protest," citing official statements but not statements by protesters, legitimizing police attempts at moving protesters out of the road by emphasizing how they needed to "allow emergency vehicles to pass," drawing attention to the October 7 attacks without mentioning stances of the protesters, and listing the full names, ages, and home cities of all 13 protesters arrested. [f] [50] Penny Kmitt, also with WBZ-TV , wrote another article on the same incident also invoking the protest paradigm, [g] [51] as did Fox News reporter Adam Sabes. [h] [52]

WABC-TV ( ABC News ) invoked the protest paradigm in an article titled "325 arrested after Pro-Palestinian protesters block major bridges, Holland Tunnel," disproportionately quoting city officials who delegitimized protester goals, emphasizing charges brought against protesters, and characterizing the protests in the context of the Israel fighting Hamas rather than mentioning criticisms actually held by the protesters. [i] [53]

Serbia

During the 2024–present Serbian anti-corruption protests, SNS-aligned media outlets such as RTS, Pink, and TV Informer covered the ongoing anti-corruption protests in a negative light, [54] [55] including false claims that the protests were backed by Kosovo. [56]

See also

Footnotes

  1. ↑ USA Today:The park's carnival atmosphere, complete with balloons and bongos, has sometimes seemed to attract as many media and passersby as actual protesters. [...] Meanwhile, visitor Lewis is entertained — if not convinced — by Occupy Wall Street's message. Interrupting Steyert's harangue comparing the current U.S. movement to recent protests in Cairo, she tells him, "You can't equate a dictator who tortured people and shut down democracy with what's happening here." "They're not very specific in their demands, are they?" Lewis asks with a bemused smile. But on this sunny Sunday in New York, the protesters' earnestness is enough for her. [End of article.] [14]
  2. ↑ Ginia Bellafante:"I've been waiting for this my whole life," Ms. Tikka, 37, told me. "This", presumably was the opportunity to air societal grievances as carnival. Occupy Wall Street, a diffuse and leaderless convocation of activists against greed, corporate influence, gross social inequality and other nasty byproducts of wayward capitalism not easily extinguishable by street theater, had hoped to see many thousands join its protest and encampment, which began Sept. 17. According to the group, 2,000 marched on the first day; news outlets estimated that the number was closer to several hundred. [...] One day, a trader on the floor of the New York Stock Exchange, Adam Sarzen, a decade or so older than many of the protesters, came to Zuccotti Park seemingly just to shake his head. "Look at these kids, sitting here with their Apple computers," he said. "Apple, one of the biggest monopolies in the world. It trades at $400 a share. Do they even know that?" [End of article.] [15]
  3. ↑ Joanna Weiss:This is the problem with overstated expectations, and with confusing high emotion with effectiveness. The protesters' stated goal was to turn Wall Street into Tahrir Square, but too many Americans do have jobs to make an Arab-Spring-style uprising even possible. It's hard to take a protest fully seriously when it looks more like a circus – some participants seem to have taken a chute straight from Burning Man – and when it's organized by a Canadian magazine and a computer-hacking group. (Also, organizers first declared that they would draw 20,000 protesters, but only 1,000 showed up. That's not a media conspiracy. It's math.) All of which explains why, when it comes to channeling liberal rage – or liberal sarcasm, which sometimes works just as well – Elizabeth Warren has a much better shot. Indeed, in a race that's getting national attention, she may have found the perfect medium for her corporate-accountability message. [16]
  4. ↑ Caitlin McFall:More than a dozen U.S. cities — still reeling from a grim night of violent riots — have implemented nighttime curfews in an effort to mitigate the worst of what they have seen in the days following the death of George Floyd, a black Minneapolis man who died in police custody after a white officer kneeled on his neck for more than 8 minutes in a moment caught on cellphone video. More than 1,000 people were arrested Saturday night alone after peaceful demonstrations turned into violent — and in some cases deadly — riots. Meanwhile, some 5,000 National Guard members have been deployed in at least 15 states in a desperate bid to stem the mayhem, chaos and wreckage. Attorney General William Barr said in a statement Sunday that as the rioting spreads in cities across the country, "voices of peaceful and legitimate protests have been hijacked by violent radical elements" and that they are working to "pursue their own separate, violent, and extremist agenda. It is time to stop watching the violence and to confront and stop it. The continued violence and destruction of property endangers the lives and livelihoods of others, and interferes with the rights of peaceful protesters, as well as all other citizens," Barr said. Barr said the violence "instigated and carried out by Antifa and other similar groups" in connection with the rioting is "domestic terrorism and will be treated accordingly". [45]
  5. ↑ Peter Jamison, Marissa J. Lang, and Fenit Nirappil:[Start of article.] The crowd swarming the fence north of the White House turned its attention from the rows of riot police on the other side of the barrier to one of their own. A young man had scaled the street sign at 16th and H streets last Tuesday night and was trying to tear it down. [...] The scene, replayed in different forms throughout the night, captured the warring impulses that gripped the nation’s capital early last week as demonstrations over the death of George Floyd gathered steam. For 48 hours, Washington teetered on the brink. After a night of riots and looting, followed by the use of tear gas by federal law enforcement officers to disperse demonstrators at Lafayette Square on June 1, the city looked like it was ready to descend into the kind of civil unrest last seen in 1968 after the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. [46]
  6. ↑ Brandon Truitt:Atwood is also charged with assault and battery on a police officer and destruction of property. All 13 are scheduled to be arraigned Wednesday in Boston Municipal Court. Police said four officers were taken to hospitals with what they called "non-life threatening injuries." "No arrestees required medical attention," investigators said. "We are extremely grateful for the work of the Boston Police in keeping the city safe and in supporting the right to peacefully protest," Mayor Michelle Wu said in a statement. "Boston will not tolerate violence, and we categorically condemn those who came into our community to attack our police officers. The individuals who engaged in these attacks must be prosecuted to the fullest extent of the law." Tuesday marked two years since the Hamas-led terrorist attack on Israel that led to war in Gaza. [End of article.] [50]
  7. ↑ Penny Kmitt:All seven protesters were charged with anarchy, which is a felony in Massachusetts, and inciting a riot. Carrig-Braun, El Khatib, Hatch, MacIntyre and Smith also face charges of assault and battery on a police officer. Pettigrew and Weikel were also charged with interfering with a police officer. The six suspects who were previously arraigned on Wednesday will face upgraded charges of anarchy at a later date. According to the Suffolk County District Attorney's office, the suspects were charged with anarchy due to "violent imagery and rhetoric used in promotional media" for the rally on Oct. 7. "This organizing material promoted violence against police and presented an immediate threat to public safety which, combined with the actions of the individuals arrested, provided clear justification for the enhanced charges," said James Borghesani, Chief of Communications for the Suffolk DA. [51]
  8. ↑ Adam Sabes:According to Boston.com, the initial protest was organized by local Students for Justice in Palestine chapters, which coincided with the two-year mark of the Oct. 7, 2023, terrorist attack by Hamas. The protest was intended to "flood downtown for Palestine." According to the report, people yelled "F--- you, Nazis" and "BPD is KKK" as they refused to leave the area. A court officer clears the area outside of a courtroom, Wednesday, Oct. 8, 2025, at Boston Municipal Court, where arraignments were held for people arrested at a pro-Palestinian rally in Boston. In a statement, Democratic Mayor Michelle Wu said that those who engaged in attacks on police will be prosecuted to the "fullest extent of the law." "We are extremely grateful for the work of the Boston Police in keeping the city safe and in supporting the right to peacefully protest. Boston will not tolerate violence, and we categorically condemn those who came into our community to attack our police officers. The individuals who engaged in these attacks must be prosecuted to the fullest extent of the law," Wu said. [52]
  9. ↑ WABC-TV:The protesters were calling on Israel to end its war on Hamas. Tens of thousands of people in Gaza have died since the war began and Israel is now beginning a more targeted approach to destroying Hamas. Mayor Eric Adams spoke out after the protests and said the right to protest does not give people the right to block bridges and tunnels. "The goal is to peacefully protest without doing major disruption to the city, some people are not just driving to and from, across our bridges to go to their place of employment, some of them are dealing with some real emergency type issues," Adams said. "I have been extremely clear, it gives us all pain to see innocent lives being lost right now, we need to do whatever is possible to end anything that is going to take the lives of innocent people, but Hamas must be destroyed, they are a terrorist organization." Adams called for every hostage to be released and to find a peaceful resolution across the globe. "Not just what is going on in the Middle East, but what is going on in Ukraine, and parts of the continent of Africa, there is no place for war and innocent people losing their lives," Adams said. [53]

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