Stanley Norman Cohen

Last updated
Stanley Norman Cohen
Stanley Norman Cohen DSC 2027.jpg
Stanley Norman Cohen, 2016
Born (1935-02-17) February 17, 1935 (age 88)
Perth Amboy, New Jersey
Nationality American
Alma mater Rutgers University, University of Pennsylvania
SpouseJoanna Lucy Wolter [1]
Awards National Medal of Science, Wolf Prize in Medicine
Scientific career
Fields Genetics
Institutions Stanford University
Doctoral students Kelly Ten Hagen

Stanley Norman Cohen (born February 17, 1935) is an American geneticist [2] and the Kwoh-Ting Li Professor in the Stanford University School of Medicine. [3] Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer were the first scientists to transplant genes from one living organism to another, a fundamental discovery for genetical engineering. [4] [5] Thousands of products have been developed on the basis of their work, including human growth hormone and hepatitis B vaccine. [6] According to immunologist Hugh McDevitt, "Cohen's DNA cloning technology has helped biologists in virtually every field". [7] Without it, "the face of biomedicine and biotechnology would look totally different." [7] Boyer cofounded Genentech in 1976 based on their work together, but Cohen was a consultant for Cetus Corporation and declined to join. [8] In 2022, Cohen was found guilty of having committed fraud in misleading investors into a biotechnology company he founded in 2016, and paid $29 million in damages. [9]

Contents

Early life

Cohen was born in Perth Amboy, New Jersey. He graduated from Rutgers University with a B.S. in 1956, and received his M.D. from the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine in 1960. [3] Cohen then held internships and fellowships at various institutions, including Mount Sinai Hospital in New York City, University Hospital in Ann Arbor, Michigan, and Duke University Hospital in Durham, North Carolina. [10] During a residency at the National Institute for Arthritis and Metabolic Diseases, he decided to combine basic research with a clinical practice. [11] In 1967 he was a postdoctoral researcher at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine. [10]

Career

Cohen discussing his life and career.

Cohen joined the faculty of Stanford University in 1968. He was appointed as a professor of medicine in 1975, and as a professor of genetics in 1977. In 1993, he became the Kwoh-Ting Li professor of genetics. [10]

At Stanford he began to explore the field of bacterial plasmids, seeking to understand how the genes of plasmids could make bacteria resistant to antibiotics. At a conference on plasmids in 1972, he met Herbert W. Boyer and discovered that their interests and research were complementary. Plasmids were sent back and forth between Stanley Cohen, Annie C. Y. Chang, and others at Stanford, and Herbert Boyer and Robert B. Helling at the University of California, San Francisco. The Stanford researchers isolated the plasmids, and sent them to the San Francisco team, who cut them using the restriction enzyme EcoRI. The fragments were analyzed and sent back to Stanford, where Cohen's team joined them and introduced them into Escherichia coli. Both laboratories then isolated and analyzed the newly created recombinant plasmids. [12]

This collaboration, in particular the 1973 publication of "Construction of biologically functional bacterial plasmids in vitro" by Cohen, Chang, Boyer and Helling, is considered a landmark in the development of methods to combine and transplant genes. [13] [14] Not only were different plasmids from E. coli successfully joined and inserted back into E. coli cells, but those cells replicated and carried forward the new genetic information. Subsequent experiments that transferred Staphylococcus plasmid genes into E. coli demonstrated that genes could be transplanted between species. [10] [15] These discoveries signaled the birth of genetic engineering, and earned Cohen a number of significant awards, beginning with the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research in 1980 for "his imaginative and persevering studies of bacterial plasmids, for discovering new opportunities for manipulating and investigating the genetics of cells, and for establishing the biological promise of recombinant DNA methodology." [16]

In 1976, Cohen co-authored a proposal for uniform nomenclature for bacterial plasmids (with Royston C. Clowes, Roy Curtiss III, Naomi Datta, Stanley Falkow and Richard Novick). [17] From 1978 to 1986, Cohen served as chair of the Department of Genetics at Stanford. [18]

During the 1970s and 1980s, Cohen was an active proponent of the potential benefits of DNA technology. [10] He was a signatory of the "Berg letter" in 1974, which called for a voluntary moratorium on some types of research pending an evaluation of risk. [19] He also attended the Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA in 1975, and was reportedly uncomfortable with the process and tone of the meeting. [20] [21] He was vocal in the recombinant DNA controversy as the United States government attempted to develop policies for DNA research. [2] [10] Government efforts resulted in the creation of the Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee and the publication of Recombinant DNA research guidelines in 1976, as well as later reports and recommendations. [22] Cohen supported the Baltimore-Campbell proposal, arguing that recommended containment levels for certain types of research should be lowered on the grounds that little risk was involved, and that the proposal should be "a non-regulating code of standard practice." [23]

Today, Cohen is a professor of genetics and medicine at Stanford, where he works on a variety of scientific problems involving cell growth and development, including mechanisms of plasmid inheritance and evolution. [10] He has continued to study plasmid involvement in antibiotic resistance. [7] In particular, he studies mobile genetic elements such as transposons which can "jump" between strains of bacteria. [24] [25] [26] He has developed techniques for studying the behavior of genes in eukaryotic cells using "reporter genes". [5] [27]

Plasmid pSC101

Stanley Norman Cohen's genetic engineering laboratory, 1973 - National Museum of American History Stanley Norman Cohen's Genetic Engineering Laboratory, 1973 - NMAH.jpg
Stanley Norman Cohen's genetic engineering laboratory, 1973 - National Museum of American History
External videos
Plasmid em-en.jpg
Nuvola apps kaboodle.svg Electron micrograph of a bacterial DNA plasmid, “Medal of Science 50 Videos -- Stanley Cohen”, National Science Foundation
Nuvola apps kaboodle.svg “Mechanism of Recombination, 3D animation with basic narration“, DNA Learning Center

Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer made what would be one of the first genetic engineering experiments, in 1973. They demonstrated that the gene for frog ribosomal RNA could be transferred into bacterial cells and expressed by them. First they developed a chemical cell transformation method for Escherichia coli, [28] then they constructed a plasmid, which would be the vector, called pSC101. [29] This plasmid contained a single site for the restriction enzyme EcoRI and a gene for tetracycline resistance. The restriction enzyme EcoRI was used to cut the frog DNA into small segments. Next, the frog DNA fragments were combined with the plasmid, which had also been cleaved with EcoRI. The sticky ends of the DNA segments aligned themselves and were afterwards joined using DNA ligase. The plasmids were then transferred into a strain of E. coli and plated onto a growth medium containing tetracycline. The cells that incorporated the plasmid carrying the tetracycline resistance gene grew and formed a colony of bacteria. Some of these colonies consisted of cells that carried the frog ribosomal RNA gene. The scientists then tested the colonies that formed after growth for the presence of frog ribosomal RNA. [30]

Patents

Cohen and Boyer were not initially interested in filing patents on their work. In 1974 they agreed to file a joint patent application, administered through Stanford, and benefiting both universities. Three patents were eventually granted for the Boyer-Cohen process, one on the actual process (1980), one on prokaryotic hosts (1984) and one on eukaryotic hosts (1988). Licenses were granted non-exclusively for "a moderate fee". [6] : 166  Four hundred seventy-eight companies took out licenses, making it one of the university's top five revenue earners. Thousands of products have been developed on the basis of the Boyer-Cohen patents. [6] : 162, 166  The Boyer-Cohen patents however were controversial due to its scope as they laid claim to the fundamental technology of gene splicing, and led to many challenges to the validity of the patents in the 1980s. The patents were unusual in that they dominated almost all other patents in the field of molecular biotechnology, and in no other industry have there been patents that had such an all-embracing impact. It also made other universities around the world become aware of the commercial value of the scientific work by their academic staff. [31]

Nuredis fraud case

In 2018, Cohen was sued by Christopher Alafi for misleading investors in the biotechnology company Nuredis, and hiding details of the FDA disapproval of a drug Cohen had discovered for Huntington's disease. [9] [32] Upon losing a long court battle, Cohen was found guilty of "a species of actual fraud and ... deceit", and he admitted to providing wrong testimony in court, although he was not found guilty of intentionally misleading investors. The drug developed by Cohen had been withdrawn by the FDA in 1976, for its potentially lethal side effects, having led to the loss of limbs and death in some cases. As reparations, Cohen paid $29.2 million in damages.

Awards

Related Research Articles

<i>Escherichia coli</i> Enteric, rod-shaped, gram-negative bacterium

Escherichia coli ( ESH-ə-RIK-ee-ə KOH-ly) is a gram-negative, facultative anaerobic, rod-shaped, coliform bacterium of the genus Escherichia that is commonly found in the lower intestine of warm-blooded organisms. Most E. coli strains are harmless, but some serotypes such as EPEC, and ETEC are pathogenic and can cause serious food poisoning in their hosts, and are occasionally responsible for food contamination incidents that prompt product recalls. Most strains are part of the normal microbiota of the gut and are harmless or even beneficial to humans (although these strains tend to be less studied than the pathogenic ones). For example, some strains of E. coli benefit their hosts by producing vitamin K2 or by preventing the colonization of the intestine by pathogenic bacteria. These mutually beneficial relationships between E. coli and humans are a type of mutualistic biological relationship — where both the humans and the E. coli are benefitting each other. E. coli is expelled into the environment within fecal matter. The bacterium grows massively in fresh fecal matter under aerobic conditions for three days, but its numbers decline slowly afterwards.

A bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) is a DNA construct, based on a functional fertility plasmid, used for transforming and cloning in bacteria, usually E. coli. F-plasmids play a crucial role because they contain partition genes that promote the even distribution of plasmids after bacterial cell division. The bacterial artificial chromosome's usual insert size is 150–350 kbp. A similar cloning vector called a PAC has also been produced from the DNA of P1 bacteriophage.

Genentech, Inc. is an American biotechnology corporation headquartered in South San Francisco, California. It became an independent subsidiary of Roche in 2009. Genentech Research and Early Development operates as an independent center within Roche. Historically, the company is regarded as the world's first biotechnology company.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Herbert Boyer</span> American researcher and businessman

Herbert Wayne "Herb" Boyer is an American biotechnologist, researcher and entrepreneur in biotechnology. Along with Stanley N. Cohen and Paul Berg, he discovered a method to coax bacteria into producing foreign proteins, which aided in jump-starting the field of genetic engineering.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Expression vector</span> Virus or plasmid designed for gene expression in cells

An expression vector, otherwise known as an expression construct, is usually a plasmid or virus designed for gene expression in cells. The vector is used to introduce a specific gene into a target cell, and can commandeer the cell's mechanism for protein synthesis to produce the protein encoded by the gene. Expression vectors are the basic tools in biotechnology for the production of proteins.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transformation (genetics)</span> Genetic alteration of a cell by uptake of genetic material from the environment

In molecular biology and genetics, transformation is the genetic alteration of a cell resulting from the direct uptake and incorporation of exogenous genetic material from its surroundings through the cell membrane(s). For transformation to take place, the recipient bacterium must be in a state of competence, which might occur in nature as a time-limited response to environmental conditions such as starvation and cell density, and may also be induced in a laboratory.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Recombinant DNA</span> DNA molecules formed by human agency at a molecular level generating novel DNA sequences

Recombinant DNA (rDNA) molecules are DNA molecules formed by laboratory methods of genetic recombination that bring together genetic material from multiple sources, creating sequences that would not otherwise be found in the genome.

A DNA construct is an artificially-designed segment of DNA borne on a vector that can be used to incorporate genetic material into a target tissue or cell. A DNA construct contains a DNA insert, called a transgene, delivered via a transformation vector which allows the insert sequence to be replicated and/or expressed in the target cell. This gene can be cloned from a naturally occurring gene, or synthetically constructed. The vector can be delivered using physical, chemical or viral methods. Typically, the vectors used in DNA constructs contain an origin of replication, a multiple cloning site, and a selectable marker. Certain vectors can carry additional regulatory elements based on the expression system involved.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stanley Falkow</span> American microbiologist

Stanley "Stan" Falkow was an American microbiologist and a professor of microbiology at Georgetown University, University of Washington, and Stanford University School of Medicine. Falkow is known as the father of the field of molecular microbial pathogenesis. He formulated molecular Koch's postulates, which have guided the study of the microbial determinants of infectious diseases since the late 1980s. Falkow spent over 50 years uncovering molecular mechanisms of how bacteria cause disease and how to disarm them. Falkow also was one of the first scientists to investigate antimicrobial resistance, and presented his research extensively to scientific, government, and lay audiences explaining the spread of resistance from one organism to another, now known as horizontal gene transfer, and the implications of this phenomenon on our ability to combat infections in the future.

Recombineering is a genetic and molecular biology technique based on homologous recombination systems, as opposed to the older/more common method of using restriction enzymes and ligases to combine DNA sequences in a specified order. Recombineering is widely used for bacterial genetics, in the generation of target vectors for making a conditional mouse knockout, and for modifying DNA of any source often contained on a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC), among other applications.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biotechnology in pharmaceutical manufacturing</span>

Biotechnology is the use of living organisms to develop useful products. Biotechnology is often used in pharmaceutical manufacturing. Notable examples include the use of bacteria to produce things such as insulin or human growth hormone. Other examples include the use of transgenic pigs for the creation of hemoglobin in use of humans.

pSC101 is a DNA plasmid that is used as a cloning vector in genetic cloning experiments. pSC101 was the first cloning vector, used in 1973 by Herbert Boyer and Stanley Norman Cohen. Using this plasmid they have demonstrated that a gene from a frog could be transferred into bacterial cells and then expressed by the bacterial cells. The plasmid is a natural plasmid from Salmonella typhimurium.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Molecular cloning</span> Set of methods in molecular biology


Molecular cloning is a set of experimental methods in molecular biology that are used to assemble recombinant DNA molecules and to direct their replication within host organisms. The use of the word cloning refers to the fact that the method involves the replication of one molecule to produce a population of cells with identical DNA molecules. Molecular cloning generally uses DNA sequences from two different organisms: the species that is the source of the DNA to be cloned, and the species that will serve as the living host for replication of the recombinant DNA. Molecular cloning methods are central to many contemporary areas of modern biology and medicine.

<i>Escherichia coli</i> in molecular biology Gram-negative gammaproteobacterium

Escherichia coli is a Gram-negative gammaproteobacterium commonly found in the lower intestine of warm-blooded organisms (endotherms). The descendants of two isolates, K-12 and B strain, are used routinely in molecular biology as both a tool and a model organism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of genetic engineering</span>

Genetic engineering is the science of manipulating genetic material of an organism. The first artificial genetic modification accomplished using biotechnology was transgenesis, the process of transferring genes from one organism to another, first accomplished by Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen in 1973. It was the result of a series of advancements in techniques that allowed the direct modification of the genome. Important advances included the discovery of restriction enzymes and DNA ligases, the ability to design plasmids and technologies like polymerase chain reaction and sequencing. Transformation of the DNA into a host organism was accomplished with the invention of biolistics, Agrobacterium-mediated recombination and microinjection. The first genetically modified animal was a mouse created in 1974 by Rudolf Jaenisch. In 1976 the technology was commercialised, with the advent of genetically modified bacteria that produced somatostatin, followed by insulin in 1978. In 1983 an antibiotic resistant gene was inserted into tobacco, leading to the first genetically engineered plant. Advances followed that allowed scientists to manipulate and add genes to a variety of different organisms and induce a range of different effects. Plants were first commercialized with virus resistant tobacco released in China in 1992. The first genetically modified food was the Flavr Savr tomato marketed in 1994. By 2010, 29 countries had planted commercialized biotech crops. In 2000 a paper published in Science introduced golden rice, the first food developed with increased nutrient value.

Janet E. Mertz is an American biochemist, molecular biologist, and cancer researcher. She is currently the Elizabeth McCoy Professor of Oncology in the McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. Mertz is best known for disputing Lawrence Summers' 2005 suggestion that women lack the intrinsic aptitude to excel in mathematics at the highest level and for discovering an easy method for joining DNAs from different species. This latter finding initiated the era of genetic engineering whose ramifications form the basis of modern genetics and the biotechnology industry.

Keiichi Itakura is an organic chemist and a Professor in the Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology at the Beckman Research Institute at City of Hope National Medical Center.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Daisy Roulland-Dussoix</span> Swiss microbiologist and molecular biologist (1936–2014)

Daisy Roulland-Dussoix was a Swiss molecular microbiologist. She was one of the discoverers of restriction enzymes during her doctoral studies. There is controversy over whether she should have received the 1978 Nobel prize in Physiology and Medicine, which was awarded to Hamilton O. Smith, Daniel Nathans, and Werner Arber.

Edward Allen Adelberg (1920–2009) was a founder of microbial genetics and biochemist who spent much of his career at Yale University. He was a member of the National Academy of Sciences and co-author of influential textbooks.

Richard P. Novick is an American microbiologist best known for his work in the fields of plasmid biology, staphylococcal pathobiology and antimicrobial resistance. He is the Recanati Family Professor of Science, Emeritus, at NYU Grossman School of Medicine and is a member of the American National Academy of Sciences. Novick has published over 250 peer-reviewed articles, and several book reviews for the Times Literary Supplement, and is a member of the Editorial Board of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

References

  1. 1 2 "Autobiography of Stanley N Cohen". Shaw Prize. Retrieved 5 May 2016.
  2. 1 2 Hughes, Sally Smith (1995). "Stanley N. Cohen SCIENCE, BIOTECHNOLOGY, and RECOMBINANT DNA: A PERSONAL HISTORY (Oral history)" (PDF). Regional Oral History Office, The Bancroft Library, University of California. Berkeley, California.
  3. 1 2 "Stanford School of Medicine Profiles: Stanley N. Cohen, MD". Stanford School of Medicine. Retrieved November 17, 2014.
  4. ↑ Yount, Lisa (2003). A to Z of biologists. New York: Facts on File. pp. 47–49. ISBN   978-0816045419 . Retrieved 4 May 2016.
  5. 1 2 Cohen, S. N. (16 September 2013). "DNA cloning: A personal view after 40 years". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 110 (39): 15521–15529. Bibcode:2013PNAS..11015521C. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1313397110 . PMC   3785787 . PMID   24043817.
  6. 1 2 3 Granstrand, Ove, ed. (2003). Economics, Law and Intellectual Property Seeking Strategies for Research and Teaching in a Developing Field. Boston, MA: Springer US. pp. 162–166. ISBN   978-1-4757-3750-9 . Retrieved 6 May 2016.
  7. 1 2 3 Wang, Bruce (10 November 1999). "Cohen: DNA genius on the Farm". The Stanford Daily. Vol. 216, no. 38.
  8. ↑ Berlin, Leslie (2017). Troublemakers : Silicon Valley's Coming of Age (1st ed.). New York. p. 199. ISBN   978-1-4516-5150-8. OCLC   1008569018.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  9. 1 2 "Stanford professor pays $29M in fraud case". 2022-12-21. Retrieved 2023-04-16.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Cohen, Stanley N. (1935- )". World of Microbiology and Immunology. Encyclopedia.com. 2003.
  11. ↑ "Biography 34: Stan Norman Cohen (1935 - )". DNA Learning Center. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. Retrieved 6 May 2016.
  12. ↑ "Herbert W. Boyer and Stanley N. Cohen". Science History Institute. June 2016. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
  13. ↑ Cohen, SN; Chang, AC; Boyer, HW; Helling, RB (November 1973). "Construction of biologically functional bacterial plasmids in vitro". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 70 (11): 3240–4. Bibcode:1973PNAS...70.3240C. doi: 10.1073/pnas.70.11.3240 . PMC   427208 . PMID   4594039.
  14. ↑ Kiermer, Veronique. "Milestone 2 (1967, 1972) Discovery of DNA ligase; Cloning The dawn of recombinant DNA". NATURE Milestones. Retrieved 5 May 2016.
  15. ↑ Chang, Annie C. Y.; Cohen, Stanley N. (1974). "Genome Construction Between Bacterial Species In Vitro: Replication and Expression of Staphylococcus Plasmid Genes in Escherichia coli". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 71 (4): 1030–1034. Bibcode:1974PNAS...71.1030C. doi: 10.1073/pnas.71.4.1030 . PMC   388155 . PMID   4598290.
  16. 1 2 "1980 Albert Lasker Basic Medical Research Award Cloning genes by recombinant DNA technology". Albert And Mary Lasker Foundation. Retrieved 5 May 2016.
  17. ↑ Novick, Richard P.; Clowes, R C; Cohen, S N; Curtiss, 3rd, R; Datta, N; Falkow, S (1976). "Uniform Nomenclature for Bacterial Plasmids: A Proposal". Bacteriological Reviews. 40 (1): 168–189. doi:10.1128/MMBR.40.1.168-189.1976. PMC   413948 . PMID   1267736.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  18. ↑ The international who's who 2004. London: Europa. 2003. p. 340. ISBN   9781857432176 . Retrieved 6 May 2016.
  19. ↑ Berg, Paul; Baltimore, David; Boyer, Herbert W.; Cohen, Stanley N.; et al. (1974). "Potential Biohazards of Recombinant DNA Molecules" (PDF). Science. 185 (4148): 303. Bibcode:1974Sci...185..303B. doi:10.1126/science.185.4148.303. PMC   388511 . PMID   4600381.
  20. ↑ Grace, Katja (2015). The Asilomar Conference: A Case Study in Risk Mitigation (PDF). Berkeley, CA: Machine Intelligence Research Institute.
  21. ↑ Bourne, Henry R. (2011). Paths to innovation : discovering recombinant DNA, oncogenes, and prions in one medical school, over one decade. San Francisco: University of California Medical Humanities Consortium. ISBN   9780983463924.
  22. ↑ Committee on the Independent Review and Assessment of the Activities of the NIH Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee; Board on Health Sciences Policy; Institute of Medicine; Lenzi RN, Altevogt BM, Gostin LO, editors. Oversight and Review of Clinical Gene Transfer Protocols: Assessing the Role of the Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2014 Mar 27. B, Historical and Policy Timelines for Recombinant DNA Technology.
  23. ↑ Office of the Director (1976). Recombinant DNA research : documents relating to "NIH guidelines for research involving recombinant DNA molecules. National Institutes of Health (U.S.). Retrieved 6 May 2016.
  24. ↑ Cohen, Stanley N.; Shapiro, James A. (1980). "Transposable Genetic Elements" (PDF). Scientific American. 242 (2): 40–49. Bibcode:1980SciAm.242b..40C. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0280-40. PMID   6246575. S2CID   6562135 . Retrieved 6 May 2016.
  25. ↑ Guilfoile, Patrick G.; Alcamo, Edward (2006). Antibiotic-resistant bacteria. New York: Chelsea House. ISBN   978-0791091883.
  26. ↑ Koonin, Eugene V.; Krupovic, Mart (January 1, 2015). "A Movable Defense". The Scientist. Retrieved 6 May 2016.
  27. ↑ Brenner, D. G.; Lin-Chao, S.; Cohen, S. N. (1 July 1989). "Analysis of mammalian cell genetic regulation in situ by using retrovirus-derived "portable exons" carrying the Escherichia coli lacZ gene". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 86 (14): 5517–5521. Bibcode:1989PNAS...86.5517B. doi: 10.1073/pnas.86.14.5517 . PMC   297654 . PMID   2501787.
  28. ↑ Cohen, S. N.; Chang, A. C.; Hsu, L. (1972). "Nonchromosomal antibiotic resistance in bacteria: Genetic transformation of Escherichia coli by R-factor DNA". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 69 (8): 2110–2114. Bibcode:1972PNAS...69.2110C. doi: 10.1073/pnas.69.8.2110 . PMC   426879 . PMID   4559594.
  29. ↑ Cohen, S.; Chang, A.; Boyer, H.; Helling, R. (1973). "Construction of biologically functional bacterial plasmids in vitro". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 70 (11): 3240–3244. Bibcode:1973PNAS...70.3240C. doi: 10.1073/pnas.70.11.3240 . PMC   427208 . PMID   4594039.
  30. ↑ Thieman, William J.; Palladino, Michael A. (2004). Introduction to biotechnology. San Francisco: Pearson/Benjamin Cummings. p.  55. ISBN   9780805348255.
  31. ↑ R.W. Old; S.B. Primrose. Principles of Gene Manipulation (5th ed.). Blackwell Scientific Publishing. pp. 56–57.
  32. ↑ "Stanford prof pays investors in defunct biotech Nuredis $29m". pharmaphorum. Retrieved 2023-04-16.
  33. ↑ "Stanley N. Cohen". The National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 5 May 2016.
  34. ↑ Gurdon, John (2012). Wolf prize in medicine 1978-2008. Vol. 1. Singapore: World Scientific. ISBN   978-981-4291-73-6.
  35. ↑ "Stanley N. Cohen Winner of Wolf Prize in Medicine - 1981". Wolf Foundation. Retrieved 5 May 2016.
  36. ↑ "National Medal Winner - Stanley Cohen". The White House. Retrieved 5 May 2016.
  37. ↑ "The President's National Medal of Science: Recipient Details, Stanley N. Cohen". National Science Foundation. Retrieved 5 May 2016.
  38. ↑ Sanders, Robert (October 18, 1989). "President Bush awards National Medal of Technology to UC San Francisco's Herbert Boyer and Stanford's Stanley Cohen". UCSF News. Retrieved 5 May 2016.
  39. ↑ "Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen". Lemelson-MIT. Retrieved 5 May 2016.
  40. ↑ "Innovators Cohen, Fogarty to enter National Inventors Hall of Fame". Stanford Report. May 16, 2001. Retrieved 4 May 2016.
  41. ↑ Adams, Amy (April 28, 2004). "Early genetics discovery wins Cohen the Albany Prize". Stanford Report. Retrieved 5 May 2016.
  42. ↑ "An Essay on Prize One in Life Science and Medicine 2004: Stanely N Cohen & Herbert W Boyer". Shaw Prize. Retrieved 5 May 2016.
  43. ↑ "APS Member History". search.amphilsoc.org. Retrieved 2021-05-24.
  44. ↑ "$2.8 million raised at 2009 Double Helix Medals dinner". Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. 12 November 2009. Archived from the original on 2 June 2016.
  45. ↑ "Biotechnology Heritage Award". Science History Institute. 31 May 2016. Retrieved 22 March 2018.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.