Timeline of knowledge about galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and large-scale structure

Last updated October 31, 2023

The following is a timeline of galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and large-scale structure of the universe.

Pre-20th century

5th century BC — Democritus proposes that the bright band in the night sky known as the Milky Way might consist of stars.
4th century BC — Aristotle believes the Milky Way to be caused by "the ignition of the fiery exhalation of some stars which were large, numerous and close together" and that the "ignition takes place in the upper part of the atmosphere, in the region of the world which is continuous with the heavenly motions".^[1]
964 — Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (Azophi), a Persian astronomer, makes the first recorded observations of the Andromeda Galaxy ^[2] and the Large Magellanic Cloud ^[3]^[4] in his Book of Fixed Stars , and which are the first galaxies other than the Milky Way to be observed from Earth.
11th century — Al-Biruni, another Persian astronomer, describes the Milky Way galaxy as a collection of numerous nebulous stars.^[5]
11th century — Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham), an Arabian astronomer, refutes Aristotle's theory on the Milky Way by making the first attempt at observing and measuring the Milky Way's parallax,^[6] and he thus "determined that because the Milky Way had no parallax, it was very remote from the Earth and did not belong to the atmosphere".^[7]
12th century — Avempace (Ibn Bajjah) of Islamic Spain proposes the Milky Way to be made up of many stars but that it appears to be a continuous image due to the effect of refraction in the Earth's atmosphere.^[1]
14th century — Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya of Syria proposes the Milky Way galaxy to be "a myriad of tiny stars packed together in the sphere of the fixed stars" and that these stars are larger than planets.^[8]
1521 — Ferdinand Magellan observes the Magellanic Clouds during his circumnavigating expedition.^[9]
1610 — Galileo Galilei uses a telescope to determine that the bright band on the sky, the "Milky Way", is composed of many faint stars.
1612 — Simon Marius using a moderate telescope observes Andromeda and describes as a "flame seen through horn".^[10]
1750 — Thomas Wright discusses galaxies and the flattened shape of the Milky Way and speculates nebulae as separate.^[11]
1755 — Immanuel Kant drawing on Wright's work conjectures our galaxy is a rotating disk of stars held together by gravity, and that the nebulae are separate such galaxies; he calls them Island Universes .
1774 — Charles Messier releases a preliminary list of 45 Messier objects, three of which turn out to be the galaxies including Andromeda and Triangulum. By 1781 the final published list grows to 103 objects, 34 of which turn out to be galaxies.
1785 — William Herschel carried the first attempt to describe the shape of the Milky Way and the position of the Sun in it by carefully counting the number of stars in different regions of the sky. He produced a diagram of the shape of the galaxy with the solar system close to the center.
1845 — Lord Rosse discovers a nebula with a distinct spiral shape.

Early 20th century

1912 — Vesto Slipher's spectrographic studies of spiral nebulae find high Doppler shifts indicating recessional velocity.
1917 — Heber Curtis finds novae in Andromeda Nebula M31 were ten magnitudes fainter than normal, giving a distance estimate of 150,000 parsecs supporting the "island universes" or independent galaxies hypothesis for spiral nebulae.
1918 — Harlow Shapley demonstrates that globular clusters are arranged in a spheroid or halo whose center is not the Earth, and hypothesizes, correctly, that its center is the Galactic Center of the galaxy,
26 April 1920 — Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis debate whether Andromeda Nebula is within the Milky Way. Curtis notes dark lanes in Andromeda resembling the dust clouds in the Milky Way, as well as significant Doppler shift.
1922 — Ernst Öpik distance determination supports Andromeda as extra-galactic object.
1923 — Edwin Hubble resolves the Shapley–Curtis debate by finding Cepheids in the Andromeda Galaxy, definitively proving that there are other galaxies beyond the Milky Way.
1930 — Robert Trumpler uses open cluster observations to quantify the absorption of light by interstellar dust in the galactic plane; this absorption had plagued earlier models of the Milky Way.
1932 — Karl Guthe Jansky discovers radio noise from the center of the Milky Way.
1933 — Fritz Zwicky applies the virial theorem to the Coma Cluster and obtains evidence for unseen mass.
1936 — Edwin Hubble introduces the spiral, barred spiral, elliptical, and irregular galaxy classifications.
1939 — Grote Reber discovers the radio source Cygnus A.
1943 — Carl Keenan Seyfert identifies six spiral galaxies with unusually broad emission lines, named Seyfert galaxies,
1949 — J. G. Bolton, G. J. Stanley, and O. B. Slee identify NGC 4486 (M87) and NGC 5128 as extragalactic radio sources.

Mid-20th century

1953 — Gérard de Vaucouleurs discovers that the galaxies within approximately 200 million light-years of the Virgo Cluster are confined to a giant supercluster disk.
1954 — Walter Baade and Rudolph Minkowski identify the extragalactic optical counterpart of the radio source Cygnus A.
1959 — Hundreds of radio sources are detected by the Cambridge Interferometer which produces the 3C catalogue. Many of these are later found to be distant quasars and radio galaxies.
1960 — Thomas Matthews determines the radio position of the 3C source 3C 48 to within 5".
1960 — Allan Sandage optically studies 3C 48 and observes an unusual blue quasistellar object.
1962 — Cyril Hazard, M. B. Mackey, and A. J. Shimmins use lunar occultations to determine a precise position for the quasar 3C 273 and deduce that it is a double source.
1962 — Olin Eggen, Donald Lynden-Bell, and Allan Sandage theorize galaxy formation by a single (relatively) rapid monolithic collapse, with the halo forming first, followed by the disk.
1963 — Maarten Schmidt identifies the redshifted Balmer lines from the quasar 3C 273.
1973 — Jeremiah Ostriker and James Peebles discover that the amount of visible matter in the disks of typical spiral galaxies is not enough for Newtonian gravitation to keep the disks from flying apart or drastically changing shape.
1973 — Donald Gudehus finds that the diameters of the brightest cluster galaxies have increased due to merging, the diameters of the faintest cluster galaxies have decreased due to tidal distention, and that the Virgo cluster has a substantial peculiar velocity.
1974 — B. L. Fanaroff and J. M. Riley distinguish between edge-darkened (FR I) and edge-brightened (FR II) radio sources.
1976 — Sandra Faber and Robert Jackson discover the Faber-Jackson relation between the luminosity of an elliptical galaxy and the velocity dispersion in its center. In 1991 the relation is revised by Donald Gudehus.
1977 — R. Brent Tully and Richard Fisher publish the Tully–Fisher relation between the luminosity of an isolated spiral galaxy and the velocity of the flat part of its rotation curve.
1978 — Steve Gregory and Laird Thompson describe the Coma supercluster.
1978 — Donald Gudehus finds evidence that clusters of galaxies are moving at several hundred kilometers per second relative to the cosmic microwave background radiation.
1978 — Vera Rubin, Kent Ford, N. Thonnard, and Albert Bosma measure the rotation curves of several spiral galaxies and find significant deviations from what is predicted by the Newtonian gravitation of visible stars.
1978 — Leonard Searle and Robert Zinn theorize that galaxy formation occurs through the merger of smaller groups.

Late 20th century

1981 — Robert Kirshner, August Oemler, Paul Schechter, and Stephen Shectman find evidence for a giant void in Boötes, 250 to 330 million light years across.^[12]
1985 — Robert Antonucci and J. Miller discover that the Seyfert II galaxy NGC 1068 has broad lines which can only be seen in polarized reflected light.
1986 — Amos Yahil, David Walker, and Michael Rowan-Robinson find that the direction of the IRAS galaxy density dipole agrees with the direction of the cosmic microwave background temperature dipole.
1987 — David Burstein, Roger Davies, Alan Dressler, Sandra Faber, Donald Lynden-Bell, R. J. Terlevich, and Gary Wegner claim that a large group of galaxies within about 200 million light years of the Milky Way are moving together towards the "Great Attractor" in the direction of Hydra and Centaurus.
1987 — R. Brent Tully discovers the Pisces–Cetus Supercluster Complex, a structure one billion light years long and 150 million light years wide.
1989 — Margaret Geller and John Huchra discover the "Great Wall", a sheet of galaxies more than 500 million light years long and 200 million wide, but only 15 million light years thick.
1990 — Michael Rowan-Robinson and Tom Broadhurst discover that the IRAS galaxy IRAS F10214+4724 is the brightest known object in the Universe.
1991 — Donald Gudehus discovers a serious systematic bias in certain cluster galaxy data (surface brightness vs. radius parameter, and the $D_{n}$ method) which affect galaxy distances and evolutionary history; he devises a new distance indicator, the reduced galaxian radius parameter, $r_{g}$ , which is free of biases.
1992 — First detection of large-scale structure in the cosmic microwave background indicating the seeds of the first clusters of galaxies in the early Universe.
1995 — First detection of small-scale structure in the cosmic microwave background.
1995 — Hubble Deep Field survey of galaxies in field 144 arc seconds across.
1998 — The 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey maps the large-scale structure in a section of the Universe close to the Milky Way.
1998 — The Hubble Deep Field South is compiled.
1998 — Discovery of accelerating universe.^[13]
2000 — Data from several cosmic microwave background experiments give strong evidence that the Universe is "flat" (space is not curved, although space-time is), with important implications for the formation of large-scale structure

Early 21st century

2001 — First data release from the ongoing Sloan Digital Sky Survey
2004 — The European Southern Observatory discovers Abell 1835 IR1916, the most distant galaxy yet seen from Earth.
2004 — The Arcminute Microkelvin Imager begins to map the distribution of distant clusters of galaxies
2005 — Spitzer Space Telescope data confirm what had been considered likely since the early 1990s from radio telescope data, i.e., that the Milky Way Galaxy is a barred spiral galaxy.^[14]^[15]^[16]
2012 — Astronomers report the discovery of the most distant dwarf galaxy yet found, approximately 10 billion light-years away.^[17]
2012 — The Huge-LQG, a large quasar group, one of the largest known structures in the universe, is discovered.^[18]
2013 — The galaxy Z8 GND 5296 is confirmed by spectroscopy to be one of the most distant galaxies found up to this time. Formed just 700 million years after the Big Bang, expansion of the universe has carried it to its current location, about 13 billion light years away from Earth (30 billion light years comoving distance).^[19]
2013 — The Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall, a massive galaxy filament and the largest known structure in the universe, was discovered through gamma-ray burst mapping.^[20]^[21]^[22]
2014 — The Laniakea Supercluster, the galaxy supercluster that is home to the Milky Way is defined via a new way of defining superclusters according to the relative velocities of galaxies.^[23]^[24] The new definition of the local supercluster subsumes the prior defined local supercluster, the Virgo Supercluster, as an appendage.^[25]^[26]^[27]^[28]^[29]
2020 — Astronomers report the discovery of a large cavity in the Ophiuchus Supercluster, first detected in 2016 and originating from a supermassive black hole with the mass of 10 million solar masses. The cavity is a result of the largest known explosion in the Universe. The formerly active galactic nucleus created it by emitting radiation and particle jets, possibly as a result of a spike in supply of gas to the black hole that could have occurred if a galaxy fell into the centre of the cavity.^[30]^[31]^[32]
2020 — Astronomers report to have discovered the disk galaxy Wolfe Disk, dating back to when the universe was only 1.5 billion years old, possibly indicating the need to revise theories of galaxy formation and evolution.^[33]^[34]^[35]^[36]
2020 — The South Pole Wall is a massive cosmic structure formed by a giant wall of galaxies (a galaxy filament) that extends across at least 1.37 billion light-years of space, and is located approximately a half billion light-years away.^[37]^[38]^[39]^[40]^[41]^[42]
2020 — After a 20-year-long survey, astrophysicists of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey publish the largest, most detailed 3D map of the universe so far, fill a gap of 11 billion years in its expansion history, and provide data which supports the theory of a flat geometry of the universe and confirms that different regions seem to be expanding at different speeds.^[43]^[44]
2022 — James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) releases the Webb's First Deep Field.
2022 — JWST detects CEERS-93316, a candidate high-redshift galaxy, with an estimated redshift of approximately z = 16.7, corresponding to 235.8 million years^[45] after the Big Bang.^[46] If confirmed, it is one of the earliest and most distant known galaxies observed.^[47]

Related Research Articles

A galaxy is a system of stars, stellar remnants, interstellar gas, dust, and dark matter bound together by gravity. The word is derived from the Greek galaxias (γαλαξίας), literally 'milky', a reference to the Milky Way galaxy that contains the Solar System. Galaxies, averaging an estimated 100 million stars, range in size from dwarfs with less than a hundred million stars, to the largest galaxies known – supergiants with one hundred trillion stars, each orbiting its galaxy's center of mass. Most of the mass in a typical galaxy is in the form of dark matter, with only a few percent of that mass visible in the form of stars and nebulae. Supermassive black holes are a common feature at the centres of galaxies.

A supercluster is a large group of smaller galaxy clusters or galaxy groups; they are among the largest known structures in the universe. The Milky Way is part of the Local Group galaxy group, which in turn is part of the Virgo Supercluster, which is part of the Laniakea Supercluster. The large size and low density of superclusters means that they, unlike clusters, expand with the Hubble expansion. The number of superclusters in the observable universe is estimated to be 10 million.

The Andromeda Galaxy is a barred spiral galaxy and is the nearest major galaxy to the Milky Way. It was originally named the Andromeda Nebula and is cataloged as Messier 31, M31, and NGC 224. Andromeda has a diameter of about 46.56 kiloparsecs and is approximately 765 kpc from Earth. The galaxy's name stems from the area of Earth's sky in which it appears, the constellation of Andromeda, which itself is named after the princess who was the wife of Perseus in Greek mythology.

The Virgo Supercluster or the Local Supercluster is a mass concentration of galaxies containing the Virgo Cluster and Local Group, which itself contains the Milky Way and Andromeda galaxies, as well as others. At least 100 galaxy groups and clusters are located within its diameter of 33 megaparsecs. The Virgo SC is one of about 10 million superclusters in the observable universe and is in the Pisces–Cetus Supercluster Complex, a galaxy filament.

The Great Attractor is a purported gravitational attraction in intergalactic space and the apparent central gravitational point of the Laniakea Supercluster of galaxies. This supercluster contains the Milky Way galaxy, as well as about 100,000 other galaxies.

An astronomical object, celestial object, stellar object or heavenly body is a naturally occurring physical entity, association, or structure that exists within the observable universe. In astronomy, the terms object and body are often used interchangeably. However, an astronomical body or celestial body is a single, tightly bound, contiguous entity, while an astronomical or celestial object is a complex, less cohesively bound structure, which may consist of multiple bodies or even other objects with substructures.

Spiral galaxies form a class of galaxy originally described by Edwin Hubble in his 1936 work The Realm of the Nebulae and, as such, form part of the Hubble sequence. Most spiral galaxies consist of a flat, rotating disk containing stars, gas and dust, and a central concentration of stars known as the bulge. These are often surrounded by a much fainter halo of stars, many of which reside in globular clusters.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Milky Way</span> Galaxy containing the Solar System

The Milky Way is the galaxy that includes the Solar System, with the name describing the galaxy's appearance from Earth: a hazy band of light seen in the night sky formed from stars that cannot be individually distinguished by the naked eye. The term Milky Way is a translation of the Latin via lactea, from the Greek γαλαξίας κύκλος, meaning "milky circle". From Earth, the Milky Way appears as a band because its disk-shaped structure is viewed from within. Galileo Galilei first resolved the band of light into individual stars with his telescope in 1610. Until the early 1920s, most astronomers thought that the Milky Way contained all the stars in the Universe. Following the 1920 Great Debate between the astronomers Harlow Shapley and Heber Doust Curtis, observations by Edwin Hubble showed that the Milky Way is just one of many galaxies.

Interacting galaxies are galaxies whose gravitational fields result in a disturbance of one another. An example of a minor interaction is a satellite galaxy disturbing the primary galaxy's spiral arms. An example of a major interaction is a galactic collision, which may lead to a galaxy merger.

The Andromeda–Milky Way collision is a galactic collision predicted to occur in about 4.5 billion years between the two largest galaxies in the Local Group—the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy. The stars involved are sufficiently far apart that it is improbable that any of them will individually collide, though some stars will be ejected.

NGC 4889 is an E4 supergiant elliptical galaxy. It was discovered in 1785 by the British astronomer Frederick William Herschel I, who catalogued it as a bright, nebulous patch. The brightest galaxy within the northern Coma Cluster, it is located at a median distance of 94 million parsecs from Earth. At the core of the galaxy is a supermassive black hole that heats the intracluster medium through the action of friction from infalling gases and dust. The gamma ray bursts from the galaxy extend out to several million light years of the cluster.

In cosmology, galaxy filaments are the largest known structures in the universe, consisting of 'walls' of gravitationally bound galactic superclusters. These massive, thread-like formations can reach 80 megaparsecs h⁻¹ and form the boundaries between voids. Galaxy filaments form the cosmic web and define the overall structure of the observable universe.

The Pisces–Cetus Supercluster Complex is a galaxy filament. It includes the Laniakea Supercluster which contains the Virgo Supercluster lobe which in turn contains the Local Group, the galaxy cluster that includes the Milky Way. This filament is adjacent to the Perseus–Pegasus Filament.

BX442 (Q2343-BX442) is a grand design spiral galaxy of type Sc. It has a companion dwarf galaxy. It is the most distant known grand design spiral galaxy in the universe, with a redshift of z=2.1765 ± 0.0001. Although commonly referred to as the oldest known grand design spiral galaxy in the universe, it is more accurately the earliest such galaxy known to exist in the universe, with a lookback time (the difference between the age of the universe now and the age of the universe at the time light left the galaxy) of 10.7 billion years in the concordance cosmology. This time estimate means that structure seen in BX442 developed roughly 3 billion years after the Big Bang. It is 15 kiloparsecs (50 kly) in diameter, and has a mass of 6 × 10¹⁰ solar masses.

The Laniakea Supercluster is the galaxy supercluster that is home to the Milky Way and approximately 100,000 other nearby galaxies.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to galaxies:

The Vela Supercluster (Vela SCl, VSCL) is a massive galactic supercluster about 265.5 megaparsecs (870 million light-years) away within the vicinity of the Zone of Avoidance, centered on the constellation Vela. It is one of the largest structures found in the universe, covering about 25 × 20 degrees of the sky. It consists of two walls: a broad main wall and a secondary merging wall. The combined dimensions of the walls are 115 km/s Mpc on the major dimensions and 90 km/s Mpc on the minor ones, which corresponds to about 385 million and 300 million light years, respectively. It is about 1,000 times the mass of the Milky Way galaxy, which corresponds to a mass of 1 × 10¹⁵ M_☉. About 20 initial galaxy clusters have been identified spectroscopically.

Daniel Pomarède is a staff scientist at the Institute of Research into the Fundamental Laws of the Universe, CEA Paris-Saclay University. He co-discovered Laniakea, our home supercluster of galaxies, and Ho'oleilana, a spherical shell-like structure 1 billion light-years in diameter found in the distribution of galaxies, possibly the remnant of a Baryon Acoustic Oscillation. Specialized in data visualization and cosmography, a branch of cosmology dedicated to mapping the Universe, he also co-authored the discoveries of the Dipole Repeller and of the Cold Spot Repeller, two large influential cosmic voids, and the discovery of the South Pole Wall, a large-scale structure located in the direction of the south celestial pole beyond the southern frontiers of Laniakea.

The South Pole Wall is a massive cosmic structure formed by a giant wall of galaxies that extends across at least 1.37 billion light-years of space, the nearest light of which is aged about half a billion light-years. The structure, in its astronomical angle, is dense in five known places including one very near to the celestial South Pole and is, according to the international team of astronomers that discovered the South Pole Wall, "...the largest contiguous feature in the local volume and comparable to the Sloan Great Wall at half the distance ...". Its discovery was announced by Daniel Pomarède of Paris-Saclay University and R. Brent Tully and colleagues of the University of Hawaiʻi in July 2020. Pomarède explained, "One might wonder how such a large and not-so distant structure remained unnoticed. This is due to its location in a region of the sky that has not been completely surveyed, and where direct observations are hindered by foreground patches of galactic dust and clouds. We have found it thanks to its gravitational influence, imprinted in the velocities of a sample of galaxies".

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[Montada-1] 1 2 Josep Puig Montada (September 28, 2007). "Ibn Bajja". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 2008-07-11.

[NSOG-2] Kepple, George Robert; Glen W. Sanner (1998). The Night Sky Observer's Guide. Vol. 1. Willmann-Bell, Inc. p. 18. ISBN 0-943396-58-1.

[obspm-3] "Observatoire de Paris (Abd-al-Rahman Al Sufi)" . Retrieved 2007-04-19.

[obspm2-4] "Observatoire de Paris (LMC)" . Retrieved 2007-04-19.

[5] O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive , University of St Andrews

[6] Mohamed, Mohaini (2000). Great Muslim Mathematicians. Penerbit UTM. pp. 49–50. ISBN 983-52-0157-9.

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v t e Galaxies
Morphology	Disc Lenticular barred unbarred Spiral anemic barred flocculent grand design intermediate Magellanic unbarred Dwarf galaxy elliptical irregular spheroidal spiral Elliptical galaxy cD Irregular barred Peculiar Ring Polar
Structure	Active galactic nucleus Bar Bulge Central massive object Galactic Center Dark matter halo Disc Disc galaxy Halo corona Galactic plane Galactic ridge Interstellar medium Protogalaxy Galaxy filament Spiral arm Supermassive black hole Ultramassive
Active nuclei	Blazar LINER Markarian Quasar BL Lacertae object Radio X-shaped DRAGN Relativistic jet Seyfert
Energetic galaxies	Lyman-alpha emitter Lyman-break Luminous infrared ULIRG HLIRG ELIRG Starburst blue compact dwarf pea faint blue Luminous infrared galaxy Hot dust-obscured Green bean galaxy Hanny's Voorwerp Wolf-Rayet galaxy
Low activity	Low surface brightness Ultra diffuse Dark galaxy Red nugget Blue Nugget Dead disk
Interaction	Field Galactic tide Groups and clusters group cluster Brightest cluster galaxy fossil group Interacting merger collision cannibalism Jellyfish Satellite Stellar stream Superclusters Walls Voids and supervoids void galaxy
Lists	Galaxies Galaxies named after people Largest Nearest Polar-ring Ring Spiral Groups and clusters Large quasar groups Quasars List of the most distant astronomical objects Starburst galaxies Superclusters Voids
See also	Extragalactic astronomy Galactic astronomy Galactic coordinate system Galactic empire Galactic habitable zone Galactic magnetic fields Galactic orientation Galactic quadrant Galaxy color–magnitude diagram Galaxy formation and evolution Galaxy rotation curve Gravitational lens Gravitational microlensing Illustris project Intergalactic dust Intergalactic stars Intergalactic travel Population III stars Galaxy X (galaxy)
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