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The African carbon market is a platform that seeks to integrate climate change mitigation with poverty alleviation for local-level farmers in Africa. Agricultural carbon market participants look forward to receiving credits for avoiding greenhouse gas emissions. The carbon market grants monetary benefits to farmers. [1]
Carbon markets are carbon pricing mechanisms enabling governments and non-state actors to trade greenhouse gas emission credits. The aims are to achieve climate targets and implement climate action costs effectively. There are compliance carbon markets and voluntary carbon markets. [2] The carbon market allows for the trading of carbon credits generated by projects in various countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions or carbon sequestration projects. [3]
There are several controversies and discourses surrounding the African carbon market, and carbon markets as a whole concerning the efficacy of the projects and systems that attempt to alleviate poverty and mitigate the effects of carbon emissions and the fundamental power structures that come with corporate influence over the carbon cycling capacity of the environment and developing communities and countries in which carbon markets are located. [4]
The African carbon market is one of the many carbon credit trading markets established since the Kyoto Protocol in 1997. [3] Some african countries that intend to partake in the carbon market are;Ecuador, Tanzania, Kenya , Indonesia, Nigeria ,Zambia etc. [5]
Microsoft and the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) participated in the first government-backed sale of carbon credits in Africa with the Government of Madagascar in 2014. [6]
There is also the West African Alliance For Carbon Market constituting Gambia, Burkina-Faso, benin, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau,Maritania,Liberia, Sierra leone,Niger,Senegal, Ivory coast,Togo and Cape verde.
In some cases carbon credit projects are done directly with small-scale farmers, and in other cases large parcels of land are leased to a government or corporation for processes like reforestation or afforestation. For example, Green Resources Ltd (GRL) is one owner of a long term lease from the Tanzanian government in order to reforest certain areas. Practices that receive carbon credits include mainly: implementation of sustainable energy practices, soil carbon management, implementation of crop rotation agriculture, reforestation, and afforestation. [7] In a 2013 study of 78 voluntary market-based projects, located in 23 countries in Africa, 42% of projects were energy efficiency projects, 40% afforestation/reforestation, 7% solar projects, 4% biomass energy projects, and the remaining percent makes up smaller types of projects (such as hydro and wind). [3]
The program evolved in the 2000s to divide into two systems: compliance and voluntary markets. These markets diverge when it comes to regulation structures. The Voluntary Carbon Market (VCM) is less formalized, and not addressed by the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). These make up the projects mediated by private, non-state entities. The compliance market, governed by the CDM, is much more formal and hierarchical, with these being the projects mediated by national and international institutions. [3]
In a 2013 study of 78 voluntary market-based projects, located in 23 countries in Africa, of the project developers 59% were private international businesses, 28% were international non-profit organizations, 9% were private local businesses, and 4% were local non-profit organizations. [3]
In 2011, voluntary carbon markets brought $60 million to Africa, with that increasing to $66 million in 2012. [8]
There has been much discussion about the effectiveness of carbon financing as a whole, and controversy around such topics. The case of Africa is unique from the rest in the way that there is relatively little experience, but when combined with extensive evidence from across the global south, Africa plays an important part in the discussion of carbon markets as a whole. [9]
The root of the criticisms of carbon markets as a whole, is in that privatization of the Earth's carbon cycling capacity has been based in political and economic processes including neoliberalism of the environment, increasing financialization, and the ongoing governance configurations across key institutions and nation states. This is then used to argue that carbon financing as a whole is used to protect the interests of the fossil fuel-dependent industrial complex. Essentially, critics of carbon markets assert that the whole system is used to avoid responding to the need for low-carbon infrastructure and to perpetuate the current economic relations or 'business as usual'. [9]
The efficacy of carbon pricing in general has been evaluated in a study of global carbon pricing emissions reductions from 1990 to 2021. Compiling more than 37 studies on the efficacy on carbon pricing, the data indicated that the emissions reductions from this method maintained in the range of 0% and 2% per year globally. For comparison, the IPCC states that emissions must fall by 45% by 2030 in order to reach the limit set as a goal during the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in 2018 (known as the Paris Agreement). [10]
There have also been concerns expressed about whether afforestation, reforestation, and carbon soil sequestration projects are being assessed at the proper level or carbon emission reductions, or whether this process is as effective at storing or reducing carbon as it is supposed to be. Scientists currently cannot evaluate exactly how much carbon is stored or released in these processes, and concerns about the payout of carbon credits for these uncertain processes exist among climate scientists. [4]
A carbon sink is a natural or artificial process that "removes a greenhouse gas, an aerosol or a precursor of a greenhouse gas from the atmosphere". These sinks form an important part of the natural carbon cycle. An overarching term is carbon pool, which is all the places where carbon on Earth can be, i.e. the atmosphere, oceans, soil, plants, and so forth. A carbon sink is a type of carbon pool that has the capability to take up more carbon from the atmosphere than it releases.
Environmental finance is a field within finance that employs market-based environmental policy instruments to improve the ecological impact of investment strategies. The primary objective of environmental finance is to regress the negative impacts of climate change through pricing and trading schemes. The field of environmental finance was established in response to the poor management of economic crises by government bodies globally. Environmental finance aims to reallocate a businesses resources to improve the sustainability of investments whilst also retaining profit margins.
Reforestation is the practice of restoring previously existing forests and woodlands that have been destroyed or damaged. The prior forest destruction might have happened through deforestation, clearcutting or wildfires. Two important purposes of reforestation programs are for harvesting of wood or for climate change mitigation purposes. Reforestation can also help with ecosystem restoration. One method for reforestation is to establish tree plantations, also called plantation forests. They cover about 131 million ha worldwide, which is 3% of the global forest area and 45% of the total area of planted forests.
Afforestation is the establishment of a forest or stand of trees in an area where there was no recent tree cover. In comparison, reforestation means re-establishing forest that have either been cut down or lost due to natural causes, such as fire, storm, etc. There are three types of afforestation: Natural regeneration, agroforestry and tree plantations. Afforestation has many benefits. In the context of climate change, afforestation can be helpful for climate change mitigation through the route of carbon sequestration. Afforestation can also improve the local climate through increased rainfall and by being a barrier against high winds. The additional trees can also prevent or reduce topsoil erosion, floods and landslides. Finally, additional trees can be a habitat for wildlife, and provide employment and wood products.
Carbon offsetting is a carbon trading mechanism that enables entities to compensate for offset greenhouse gas emissions by investing in projects that reduce, avoid, or remove emissions elsewhere. When an entity invests in a carbon offsetting program, it receives carbon credit or offset credit, which account for the net climate benefits that one entity brings to another. After certification by a government or independent certification body, credits can be traded between entities. One carbon credit represents a reduction, avoidance or removal of one metric tonne of carbon dioxide or its carbon dioxide-equivalent (CO2e).
Land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF), also referred to as Forestry and other land use (FOLU) or Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU), is defined as a "greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use such as settlements and commercial uses, land-use change, and forestry activities."
The Gold Standard (GS), or Gold Standard for the Global Goals, is a standard and logo certification mark program, for non-governmental emission reductions projects in the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), the Voluntary Carbon Market and other climate and development interventions. It is published and administered by the Gold Standard Foundation, a non-profit foundation headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. It was designed with an intent to ensure that carbon credits are real, verifiable, and that projects make measurable contributions to sustainable development. The objective of the GS is to add branding, with a quality label, to carbon credits generated by projects which can then be bought and traded by countries that have a binding legal commitment according to the Kyoto Protocol, businesses, or other organizations for carbon offsetting purposes.
Certified emission reductions (CERs) originally designed a type of emissions unit issued by the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) Executive Board for emission reductions achieved by CDM projects and verified by a DOE under the rules of the Kyoto Protocol.
The Forests Now Declaration is a declaration that advocates using carbon credits to protect tropical forests. The Declaration was created by the Global Canopy Programme, and has been signed by over 200 NGOs, business leaders, scientists and conservationists. The Declaration was created as carbon credits from land use, land-use change and forestry were omitted from the Clean Development Mechanism for the First Commitment Period of the Kyoto Protocol despite contributing 18–25% of all emissions.
Payments for ecosystem services (PES), also known as payments for environmental services, are incentives offered to farmers or landowners in exchange for managing their land to provide some sort of ecological service. They have been defined as "a transparent system for the additional provision of environmental services through conditional payments to voluntary providers". These programmes promote the conservation of natural resources in the marketplace.
Carbon emission trading (also called carbon market, emission trading scheme (ETS) or cap and trade) is a type of emissions trading scheme designed for carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases (GHGs). A form of carbon pricing, its purpose is to limit climate change by creating a market with limited allowances for emissions. Carbon emissions trading is a common method that countries use to attempt to meet their pledges under the Paris Agreement, with schemes operational in China, the European Union, and other countries.
The extensive and rapid clearing of forests (deforestation) within the borders of Nigeria has significant impacts on both local and global scales.
Carbon dioxide removal (CDR) is a process in which carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere by deliberate human activities and durably stored in geological, terrestrial, or ocean reservoirs, or in products. This process is also known as carbon removal, greenhouse gas removal or negative emissions. CDR is more and more often integrated into climate policy, as an element of climate change mitigation strategies. Achieving net zero emissions will require first and foremost deep and sustained cuts in emissions, and then—in addition—the use of CDR. In the future, CDR may be able to counterbalance emissions that are technically difficult to eliminate, such as some agricultural and industrial emissions.
Climate change is a critical issue in Bangladesh. as the country is one of the most vulnerable to the effects of climate change. In the 2020 edition of Germanwatch's Climate Risk Index, it ranked seventh in the list of countries most affected by climate calamities during the period 1999–2018. Bangladesh's vulnerability to the effects of climate change is due to a combination of geographical factors, such as its flat, low-lying, and delta-exposed topography. and socio-economic factors, including its high population density, levels of poverty, and dependence on agriculture. The impacts and potential threats include sea level rise, temperature rise, food crisis, droughts, floods, and cyclones.
Deforestation is a primary contributor to climate change, and climate change affects the health of forests. Land use change, especially in the form of deforestation, is the second largest source of carbon dioxide emissions from human activities, after the burning of fossil fuels. Greenhouse gases are emitted from deforestation during the burning of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon. Global models and national greenhouse gas inventories give similar results for deforestation emissions. As of 2019, deforestation is responsible for about 11% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon emissions from tropical deforestation are accelerating.
The Buffelsdraai Community Reforestation Project was initiated in 2008 to alleviate climate change impacts associated with hosting elements of the 2010 FIFA World Cup in Durban. The proposed carbon offset was to be achieved through the planting of more than 500 000 indigenous trees within the buffer zone of the Buffelsdraai Landfill Site. Restoring the forest ecosystem was identified as a way of "absorbing event-related greenhouse gas emissions while enhancing the capacity of people and biodiversity to adapt to the inevitable effects of climate change".
Carbon farming is a set of agricultural methods that aim to store carbon in the soil, crop roots, wood and leaves. The technical term for this is carbon sequestration. The overall goal of carbon farming is to create a net loss of carbon from the atmosphere. This is done by increasing the rate at which carbon is sequestered into soil and plant material. One option is to increase the soil's organic matter content. This can also aid plant growth, improve soil water retention capacity and reduce fertilizer use. Sustainable forest management is another tool that is used in carbon farming. Carbon farming is one component of climate-smart agriculture. It is also one way to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is a set of farming methods that has three main objectives with regards to climate change. Firstly, they use adaptation methods to respond to the effects of climate change on agriculture. Secondly, they aim to increase agricultural productivity and to ensure food security for a growing world population. Thirdly, they try to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture as much as possible. Climate-smart agriculture works as an integrated approach to managing land. This approach helps farmers to adapt their agricultural methods to the effects of climate change.
Forest now covers less than a third of Turkey, but ten thousand years ago the land was mostly wooded. The country is reforesting, which is important for the wildlife of Turkey.
Bukaleba Central Forest Reserve is located in Mayuge District and 120 km east of Kampala. It was first gazetted in 1932 as forest reserve.
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