Ennedi Plateau

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Ennedi Massif: Natural and Cultural Landscape
UNESCO World Heritage Site
24 Kamele ziehen zur Wasserstelle im Ennedi-Gebirge im Tschad.jpg
Camels at a waterhole in a canyon in Ennedi
Location Ennedi Region, Chad
Criteria Cultural and Natural: (iii), (vii), (ix)
Reference 1475
Inscription2016 (40th Session)
Area2,441,200 ha (6,032,000 acres)
Buffer zone777,800 ha (1,922,000 acres)
Coordinates 17°2′30″N21°51′46″E / 17.04167°N 21.86278°E / 17.04167; 21.86278
Chad relief location map.jpg
Red pog.svg
Location of Ennedi Plateau in Chad
Landsat 8 image of Gweni-Fada crater in the Ennedi Plateau Landsat 8 image of Gweni-Fada crater in the Ennedi Plateua.png
Landsat 8 image of Gweni-Fada crater in the Ennedi Plateau

The Ennedi Plateau is located in the northeast of Chad, in the regions of Ennedi-Ouest and Ennedi-Est. It is considered a part of the group of mountains known as the Ennedi Massif found in Chad, which is one of the nine countries that make up the Sahelian belt that spans the Atlantic Ocean to Sudan. The Ennedi is a sandstone bulwark in the middle of the Sahara, which was formed by erosion from wind and temperature. [1] Many people occupied this area, such as hunters-gatherers (5,000-4,000 cal BC) and pastoralists (beginning 4,000 cal BC). The Ennedi area is also known for its large collection of rock art depicting mainly cattle, as these animals had the greatest financial, environmental, and cultural impact. This art dates back nearly 7,000 years ago. [2] Today, two semi-nomadic groups, mainly Muslim, live in the Ennedi during the rainy months and pass through the area during the dry season. They rely on their herds of camels, donkeys, sheep, and goats to survive. [3]

Contents

Landscape and climate

The Ennedi makes up an area of approximately 60,000 km2 (23,000 sq mi), as large as Switzerland, and its highest point is approximately 1,450 m (4,760 ft) above sea level. [4] The Massif is composed of sandstone overlaying a Precambrian granite base. [5] In the Ennedi, there are at least twenty perennial or semi-perennial springs, gueltas (desert ponds), and pools, but they rarely reach greater than a few dozen meters in the dry season. [6] It is considered part of the Sahelian Acacia savanna, which extends across the entire continent which once contained diverse ungulates whose population has since been reduced. The landscape has geological structures, including towers, pillars, bridges, and arches, which serve as major tourist attractions. Interestingly, much of the sand found in the Sahara is due to the generation of dust in the Tibesti-Ennedi triangle. [7]

Evidence of a change in climate occurred between 6000 BP, with a savanna region with ~250 mm annual rainfall, to ~150 mm annual rainfall 4300 BP. [8] It later reached an annual rainfall of 50  mm around 2700 BP, similar to the amount of annual rainfall observed today. There are also monsoons common in the area, generating around 50–150  mm of rain per year. These natural disasters create a diverse mixture of vegetation within the area. However, precipitation allows for greater moisture in the thin soil during the winter months, with lower run-off. The mountains are also known to have a north-Sahelian climate in the southern region, with greater amounts of precipitation between the months of May and September. [9] The rainfall is subject to the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).

History of protection

Just under one-tenth of World Heritage Sites are in Africa, but the site was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Site in February 2016. [10] During this process, there was much debate over what should be included. [11] First of all, two administration zones and several villages had to reach agreement on whether it was considered a part of the World Heritage Site.  However, its establishment has benefited Chad by increasing income in the area from tourists who spend money to stay.  Also, the Chadian government eventually reduced the size of the protected area due to oil exploration. The Ennedi suffers from high income inequality, so the use of oil reserves has allowed for better redistribution of wealth. [12] There is believed to have been a partnership contract between the State Party and oil companies for oil exploration and the private lease of land which have raised concerns regarding the reduced amount of protected area by UNESCO. [13] As a result to this increase in oil exploitation, there has been accidental oil spills in Chad, leaving the contamination of groundwater, accidental chemical spills, and the reduction in air quality.

African Parks assumed management of this area in partnership with the Chadian government in early 2018. [14] African Parks intends to improve the park's infrastructure and explore the potential for tourism to amass support for this landscape and to contribute to the needs of the local people. The European Union contributed €4.7 million to African Parks, and the Dutch Postcode Lottery gave around €3 million over three years to this organization. [15] Furthermore, about 50,000 km2 (19,000 sq mi), a large portion of the Ennedi Plateau, was designated as the Ennedi Natural and Cultural Reserve by the Chadian government in January 2019. [2]

The World Bank has also worked with the Chadians by recommending the oil-revenues-management-and-redistribution program, which states that “70% of direct oil revenues are to be allocated to priority sectors, 15% to public investments, 5% to the oil-producing department, and 10% to future generations.” [12]   However, the Chadian government has already been criticized for not abiding by the program.

Geology

The plateau consists of Cambrian-Ordivician to Carboniferous sandstone on the north-facing Gondwana platform. The sandstone overlies the Pan-African basement consisting of granites, gneiss, or quartzite ridges. Glacial lineations, plus ridge-and-trough topography, record the Andean-Saharan glaciation. [16]

Fauna

Camels in the Guelta d'Archei, a landmark in the plateau GueltaCamels.jpg
Camels in the Guelta d'Archei, a landmark in the plateau

Unfortunately, not a lot of studies have been conducted on Northern Chad due to security issues, harsh climatic conditions, wars, and banditry. However, researchers have found that due to a large reservoir in the area, the plateau has a rich collection of fauna. For example, there are at least 199 listed species of migratory birds that pass through the Ennedi. [17] Other examples of fauna include the West African crocodile, also known as the desert crocodile, that once existed throughout the Sahara at a time of more abundant rainfall (see Neolithic Subpluvial). A striking characteristic of this population of crocodiles is dwarfism, which developed due to their isolation, making them unusual (other such remnant populations are or were found in Mauritania and Algeria). They survive in only a few pools in river canyons in the area, for example, the Guelta d'Archei, and are threatened with extinction. [18] The last lions (West African subspecies) in the Sahara also survived here until they became extinct in the 1940s due to increased land use and hunting/poaching. [19] Any surviving scimitar oryx antelopes and Sudan cheetah still alive in the wild are likely to be found in the remote regions of the Ennedi Plateau. Researchers used camera traps to identify an isolated population of North African ostrich that was discovered to still be living in the protected area. [2] To bolster this population, African Parks rehomed 11 ostrich chicks from Zakouma National Park to the reserve. [20] The chicks were kept in a holding facility until they reached adulthood, before being released into the greater area. There are currently 25 ostriches in Ennedi as of 2022. It has been suggested that the cryptid Ennedi tiger (a supposed surviving sabertooth cat) may also live there.[ citation needed ] Gazelles and antelopes are also known to be present in the area. [21] Poaching and hunting have decreased the number of species in the area. Lastly, the discovery of the fish species P. senegalus and P. normani are of particular interest to researchers. The identification of these species in the Sahara desert shows the connection between the Ounianga lakes and Lake Chad. The researchers sampled during the day and the night with landing nets and other observations to conduct their study. [22] Finally, there are only seven species of fish found in the Ennedi, according to researcher Daget. [23]

Flora

A total number of 2,173 species of flora are native to Chad, and some of the first flora researchers in the area back in the 1950s included R. Corti, H. Gillet, R. Maire, and P. Quézel. [24] There are currently over 525 species of flora that have been listed in the Ennedi. [17] Specifically, researcher Gillet used a classification system to describe 7 main life forms for the 526 species of flora found: 41.3% therophytes, 3.0% geophytes, 5.1% helophytes, 1.1% hydrophytes, 7.0% hemicryptophytes, 18.4% chamaephytes, 15.1% phanerophytes. [24] Unusual species, including Rauwolfia caffra, a type of tree typically found in tropical and equatorial Africa, is found in the Ennedi. [5] Much of the vegetation is protected by the presence of deep canyons and gueltas. Only 2% of Chadian land is currently cultivated, about 50% is grazed, and cereal grains make up the main food groups. [24] During arid periods, this site serves as a refuge for subtropical taxa, such as palms and grasses. The most common types of soils in Chad include Leptosols, Regosols, and Arenosols in the central and northern regions, and Fluvisols, Plinthosols, Planosols, Solonchaks, and Vertisols in the southern region. [24] The Desert Locust is known for its deleterious impacts on the local flora, specifically crops and pastures. [25]

Culture

While there is a lack of absolute dates concerning the Ennedi rock art, the images can be dated from around 5000 BC onwards. [1] The archaeological record and sites' rock art allow researchers to generate these dates because there is, unfortunately, a lack of organic materials. [8] For instance, only one cattle jaw was found from around 630 BC. [21] However, researchers continue to use radiocarbon dates from both charcoal and other cattle bones to age these sites. In addition, there are around six sites, and around 40 pictures have been found. [1] Examples of petroglyphs or rock paintings have been found in the area, such as those at the "lost sight" of Niola Doa. Thousands of paintings and carvings of people and animals exist throughout the area and are estimated to be about 8,000 years old. [26] Much of the art has been recognized with its great expression through color, with more than 86% of the art painted and 14% engraved. [27] The art was found on the floors, on the ceilings, and the walls of shelters created by wind erosion, and they are often found in elevated positions.

Rock art

The artwork portrays both animals and humans as they are in real life, with little to no hunter-gatherer representation. Unfortunately, many of the paintings have deteriorated due to weathering and vandalism.

Significance

Rock paintings in Manda Gueli Cave in the Ennedi Mountains. Prehistoric Rock Paintings at Manda Gueli Cave in the Ennedi Mountains - northeastern Chad 2015.jpg
Rock paintings in Manda Guéli Cave in the Ennedi Mountains.

Early pictures were monochrome, representing people working with their livestock, and many were shown with hunting gear while walking and running. This portrayal emphasized the type of lifestyle people had during the early Iron Age, a period in Africa from around the second century AD until 1000 AD. As time progressed, images became much more colorful. Many more combative weapons were shown, which may have been due to intensified fighting due to distinguished hierarchies. [28] A changing climate, due to decreased water and pasture, may have been indicated with these types of weapons.

Animals

Domesticated animals made up nearly 69% of the artwork depicted at Ennedi Plateau. [21] However, the rock art had the greatest emphasis on domesticated cattle. [29] In fact, at one site, Murdi, researchers graphed the frequency of humans and animals found among the rock art. Cattle consisted of over 50% of the total pictures, caprids around 10%, and dogs around 5%. [30] The first rock picture ever discovered included the "Apollon Garamante," which showed two masked persons on the side of cattle. [31] Cattle were perceived as having unique horns, especially among longhorn cattle which occupied a large population. [32] For instance, some cattle were given lyre-shaped horns. [31] Cattle were known to have a large financial, cultural, and environmental impact on the people of the Ennedi highlands. They were also given distinct coats to individualize these animals, and rock art at some sites, including the Chiguéou II site, includes cattle figures in extravagant geometric designs. [33] Cattle were found all among the highlands, while other animals, such as horses, were not. Other types of domesticated animals found included sheep and dogs.

During the Iron Age, people survived on a more nomadic lifestyle, choosing to display camels and specifically horses in their pictures. However, these animals were not individualized with different coats as the cows were. Also, while paintings of cattle portray the animals as static, horses are shown as galloping animals, creating an artistic quality to the art. [34] Some more recent paintings included horses with chariots. [30] Horses are believed to not be exhibited in the artwork as much as other animals, such as cattle, due to a lesser influence on the pastoralists. Camels were also portrayed, as having more movement than the other animals.

Wild animals were also portrayed in the artwork for their religious and mythical meanings. Giraffes were the most common wild animals demonstrated, and they were most often expressed during hunter-gatherer times. Also, numerous rhinos were crafted alongside round-headed humans, unusual for the typical behavior of rhinos as they usually live as couples or loners. [35]

People

Depictions of people are fairly common in Ennedi rock art, and among the human figures found, only 4% were engraved. [21] There were numerous handprints from both men and women found among the rock art. Males are often exhibited as standing in front of cattle holding a lance and a shield, mainly seen as protecting their animals. [21] Females are not portrayed as often as males. The graph mentioned previously that showed the frequency of humans and animals found that at the site Mundi, men were depicted 20% of the time, while women were only depicted 10%. [30] However, women were often displayed as extravagantly decorated, such as those at Niola Dola. [36] They were often covered in wavy lines and interesting geometric patterns, and these designs have been compared to Round Head-style figures found in Algeria. [1]

At sites like Nabara 2, located on the base of the north-face of the Saodomanga, oval engravings depict fauna like camels, cattle, and giraffes. [37] Warriors are seen hiding behind round shields, and women are donned in long dresses. Females are not accompanied by weapons, while the men typically are.

Another major site, Niola Doa, which means "The place of the girls," in the local language, is no longer considered under UNESCO protection, yet is known as one of the most important rock sites in the Sahara. Many figures appear to be naked, with smaller figures adorning skirts, and some were seen as having a genetic condition known as steatopygia, which is caused by an accumulation of fat in the thighs and the buttocks. [1]

Pottery

During 5,000-4,000 cal BC, the Ennedi people worked as hunting, fishing, and gathering groups mainly on the plains. They mainly remained in settlement sites due to favorable conditions. Pottery vessels used at these sites included dotted wavy-line patterns unique to this period. [38]

As time progressed until around 4,000 cal BC, hunting and gathering societies shifted to cattle-herding. [38] With a shift in lifestyle, pottery styles changed as well. For instance, vessels now had much more decorative patterns, and different shapes of pots were created. Also, certain stone tools emerged for the first time, including axes.

Lastly, due to increased aridity from 3,000-2,000 BC, there were more established settlements, as well as a greater amount of herding with mainly small livestock. [38] The pottery exhibited geometric patterns for the first time, and stone tools included mainly just retouched flakes and grinding material.

Major sites

Research and outreach

As rock art depictions have shown, there has been a decrease in fauna over time due to climatic changes, but also due to hunting and poaching. While the decrease in fauna has been a large issue in the area, vandalism has also taken a large toll on the site. For instance, suspected local youths defaced rock art at the Ennedi rock art site by scrawling their names on the art in French and Arabic, with the latest inscription from January 2017. [26] Chad's minister of culture, Mahamat Saleh Haroun, described the situation, "It's an African story and they wanted to destroy that." [41] While the head of UNESCO in Chad Abdelkerim Adoum Bahar believes the damage can be repaired, other organizations have since become involved. [42] For example, the Trust for African Rock Art, in partnership with the Factum Foundation, has since documented Ennedi through photographs; their mission is to show the issues involved in protecting rock art. [39] Due to both erosion and vandalism, the Ennedi has faced deterioration, but this art has now been recorded in 3D to raise awareness about the beauty of this site. Films have also been made about this landscape, including Towers of the Ennedi, directed by Renan Ozturk to show the beauty of the Ennedi. [43]

Related Research Articles

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aïr Mountains</span> Mountain range in northern Niger

The Aïr Mountains or Aïr Massif is a triangular massif, located in northern Niger, within the Sahara. Part of the West Saharan montane xeric woodlands ecoregion, they rise to more than 1,800 m (5,900 ft) and extend over 84,000 km2 (32,000 sq mi). Lying in the midst of desert north of the 17th parallel, the Aïr plateau, with an average altitude between 500 and 900 m, forms an island of Sahel climate which supports a wide variety of life, many pastoral and farming communities, and dramatic geological and archaeological sites. There are notable archaeological excavations in the region that illustrate the prehistoric past of this region. The endangered African wild dog once existed in this region, but may now be extirpated due to human population pressures in this region.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tassili n'Ajjer</span> National park in the Sahara Desert in Algeria

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tibesti Mountains</span> Mountain range in the Sahara

The Tibesti Mountains are a mountain range in the central Sahara, primarily located in the extreme north of Chad, with a small portion located in southern Libya. The highest peak in the range, Emi Koussi, lies to the south at a height of 3,415 meters (11,204 ft) and is the highest point in both Chad and the Sahara. Bikku Bitti, the highest peak in Libya, is located in the north of the range. The central third of the Tibesti is of volcanic origin and consists of five volcanoes topped by large depressions: Emi Koussi, Tarso Toon, Tarso Voon, Tarso Yega and Toussidé. Major lava flows have formed vast plateaus that overlie Paleozoic sandstone. The volcanic activity was the result of a continental hotspot that arose during the Oligocene and continued in some places until the Holocene, creating fumaroles, hot springs, mud pools and deposits of natron and sulfur. Erosion has shaped volcanic spires and carved an extensive network of canyons through which run rivers subject to highly irregular flows that are rapidly lost to the desert sands.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stefan Kröpelin</span>

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pastoral period</span> Most Common Type of Central Saharan rock art

Pastoral rock art is the most common form of Central Saharan rock art, created in painted and engraved styles depicting pastoralists and bow-wielding hunters in scenes of animal husbandry, along with various animals, spanning from 6300 BCE to 700 BCE. The Pastoral Period is preceded by the Round Head Period and followed by the Caballine Period. The Early Pastoral Period spanned from 6300 BCE to 5400 BCE. Domesticated cattle were brought to the Central Sahara, and given the opportunity for becoming socially distinguished, to develop food surplus, as well as to acquire and aggregate wealth, led to the adoption of a cattle pastoral economy by some Central Saharan hunter-gatherers of the Late Acacus. In exchange, cultural information regarding utilization of vegetation in the Central Sahara was shared by Late Acacus hunter-gatherers with incoming Early Pastoral peoples.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Round Head Period</span> Earliest rock paintings of the Central Sahara

Round Head rock art is the earliest painted, monumental form of Central Saharan rock art, which was largely created from 9500 BP to 7500 BP and ceased being created by 3000 BP. The Round Head Period is preceded by the Kel Essuf Period and followed by the Pastoral Period. Round Head rock art number up to several thousand depictions in the Central Sahara. Human and undomesticated animal artforms are usually portrayed, with a variety of details, in painted Round Head rock art. Painted Round Head rock art and engraved Kel Essuf rock art usually share the same region and occasionally the same rockshelters. The Round Head rock art of Tassili and the surrounding mountainous areas bear considerable similarity with traditional Sub-Saharan African cultures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tichitt culture</span> Earliest West African Civilization

The Tichitt Culture, or Tichitt Tradition, was created by proto-Mande peoples. In 4000 BCE, the start of sophisticated social structure developed among herders amid the Pastoral Period of the Sahara. Saharan pastoral culture was intricate. By 1800 BCE, Saharan pastoral culture expanded throughout the Saharan and Sahelian regions. The initial stages of sophisticated social structure among Saharan herders served as the segue for the development of sophisticated hierarchies found in African settlements, such as Dhar Tichitt. After migrating from the Central Sahara, proto-Mande peoples established their civilization in the Tichitt region of the Western Sahara. The Tichitt Tradition of eastern Mauritania dates from 2200 BCE to 200 BCE.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prehistoric West Africa</span> Prehistory of the West African subregion of the African continent

The prehistory of West Africa spans from the earliest human presence in the region until the emergence of the Iron Age in West Africa. West African populations were considerably mobile and interacted with one another throughout the population history of West Africa. Acheulean tool-using archaic humans may have dwelled throughout West Africa since at least between 780,000 BP and 126,000 BP. During the Pleistocene, Middle Stone Age peoples, who dwelled throughout West Africa between MIS 4 and MIS 2, were gradually replaced by incoming Late Stone Age peoples, who migrated into West Africa as an increase in humid conditions resulted in the subsequent expansion of the West African forest. West African hunter-gatherers occupied western Central Africa earlier than 32,000 BP, dwelled throughout coastal West Africa by 12,000 BP, and migrated northward between 12,000 BP and 8000 BP as far as Mali, Burkina Faso, and Mauritania.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prehistoric Central Africa</span> Prehistory of the Central African subregion of the African continent

The prehistory of Central Africa spans from the earliest human presence in the region until the emergence of the Iron Age in Central Africa. By at least 2,000,000 BP, Central Africa was occupied by early hominins. West African hunter-gatherers occupied western Central Africa earlier than 32,000 BP, dwelled throughout coastal West Africa by 12,000 BP, and migrated northward between 12,000 BP and 8000 BP as far as Mali, Burkina Faso, and Mauritania. Prehistoric West Africans may have diverged into distinct ancestral groups of modern West Africans and Bantu-speaking peoples in Cameroon, and, subsequently, around 5000 BP, the Bantu-speaking peoples migrated into other parts of Sub-Saharan Africa.

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  31. 1 2 Muzzolini, Alfred. (2000). Livestock in Saharan rock art. UCL Press. OCLC   57895786.
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  34. ↑ Lenssen-Erz, Tilman (February 2012). "Adaptation or Aesthetic Alleviation: Which Kind of Evolution Do We See in Saharan Herder Rock Art of Northeast Chad?". Cambridge Archaeological Journal. 22 (1): 89–114. doi:10.1017/s0959774312000066. ISSN   0959-7743. S2CID   162729692.
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  42. ↑ "Vandals Deface Prehistoric Ennedi Cave Paintings in Chad". Face2Face Africa. 2017-03-21. Retrieved 2019-11-25.
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