High-dose chemotherapy

Last updated
photo showing chemotherapy with chemo infusion Chemotherapy iv (1).jpg
photo showing chemotherapy with chemo infusion

High-dose chemotherapy (HDC) is a regimen of chemotherapy medicines given at larger dosages. This therapeutic strategy is used to treat some cancers, especially those that are aggressive or have a high chance of coming back. With increased doses of chemotherapy chemicals administered to the body, HDC seeks to optimize the death of cancer cells.

Contents

It was first explored as a potential treatment option in the field of oncology in the late 1970s. Significant progress has been achieved in the understanding of the best dosage, combinations of drugs, and supportive care methods related to HDC over time. Some of the hazards and side effects that were formerly linked to larger dosages of chemotherapy medications have been lessened thanks to these improvements. Severe suppression of the bone marrow, heightened vulnerability to infections, gastrointestinal toxicity, and more systemic problems were among the possible side effects.

Autologous Stem Cell Transplantation (ASCT), which involves the collection and storage of a patient's own stem cells prior to the administration of HDC, plays a vital role in the treatment process. Once the chemotherapy is completed, the stored stem cells are infused back into the patient's body. This procedure helps to restore the bone marrow and support the recovery of blood cells. ASCT has allowed for the administration of HDC, with improvements in supportive care reducing associated morbidity and mortality. [1] [2]

Medical uses

HDC is known to be effective in treating types of cancer and has been found to enhance patient outcomes. This treatment method is commonly linked with blood cancers like multiple myeloma, Hodgkin's lymphoma, and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. It is also used in solid tumors such as germ cell tumors and certain high risk or recurrent breast cancers.

Multiple myeloma, a type of plasma cell cancer [3] is an indication for HDC. Typically it follows stem cell transplant (ASCT) once initial therapy shows a positive response. The goal is to extend progression survival and overall survival rates. Clinical trials have validated the effectiveness of this approach making it the standard of care for patients. Research by Attal et al has shown that patients with myeloma who undergo HDC experience significantly improved survival rates compared to those receiving conventional chemotherapy—a strong indicator of HDCs impact. [4]

Moreover, HDC is frequently employed in individuals with refractory Hodgkins and non Hodgkins lymphoma. In these conditions HDC can act as a salvage therapy that proves beneficial, for patients potentially leading to long lasting remission. [5] Schmitz and colleagues important study showed that high dose chemotherapy followed by stem cell transplantation (ASCT) could lead to better outcomes in individuals with recurrent Hodgkins lymphoma. [6]

When it comes to germ cell tumors, particularly testicular cancer, high dose chemotherapy can be used as a treatment option for patients who have experienced a relapse following initial chemotherapy or for those with unfavorable prognostic factors. A research conducted by Einhorn and team demonstrated the effectiveness of high dose chemotherapy in this scenario revealing remissions even in patients, with refractory disease. [7]

Some breast cancer patients, particularly those with high-risk features such as a large number of involved lymph nodes, aggressive tumor biology, or those who do not respond adequately to standard adjuvant therapy, may be considered for HDC. However, the role of HDC in breast cancer is more controversial and is generally reserved for the setting of clinical trials. A meta-analysis by Berry et al. evaluated the role of HDC in breast cancer, noting that certain subgroups of patients might derive benefit, although the overall impact on survival is less clear compared to standard treatments. [8]

The selection of patients for HDC is critical and is based on several criteria. Patients must have a performance status that indicates they can tolerate the rigors of HDC and the subsequent ASCT. They must have adequate organ function, including cardiac, pulmonary, renal, and hepatic functions, as HDC can be toxic to these organs. Age is also a consideration, with younger patients typically tolerating HDC better than older patients; however, biological age and comorbidities are more important than chronological age. [9]

Mechanism of action

The way HDC works involves important processes that together contribute to its potential effectiveness in treating cancer.

DNA damage and cell cycle blockage

HDC causes damage to the DNA of cancer cells leading to cell cycle arrest. The chemotherapeutic agents utilized in HDC such as alkylating agents [10] and platinum compounds create covalent bonds with DNA resulting in linking and strand breaks. This disruption in DNA processes hinders replication and transcription halting the cell cycle and preventing proliferation of cancer cells. By focusing on DNA HDC has the potential to eliminate cancer cells efficiently. [11]

Enhanced drug penetration and availability

HDC aims to increase drug concentrations within the tumor microenvironment by using dosages. This increased dosage helps drugs penetrate into the tumor [12] overcoming obstacles like vasculature and interstitial pressure. The improved availability of drugs allows for distribution throughout the tumor mass reaching resistant cancer cells that lower doses might not have affected. As a result HDC increases the likelihood of eradicating all cancer cells, including those that're harder to reach. [13]

Depletion of stem cells

Apart from attacking cancer cells, HDC can also reduce the population of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) found in bone marrow. Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) play a role in generating different types of blood cells and their decrease is a result of the strong toxicity of HDC on rapidly multiplying cells. While this may cause a suppression of bone marrow activity it can also target any remaining cancer cells that have spread to the bone marrow lowering the chances of disease recurrence. [14]

Synergistic effects

When HDC is combined with treatment methods it can produce synergistic effects. For example pairing HDC with stem cell transplantation enables the administration of chemotherapy doses than would be possible without stem cell support. This strategic approach enhances the impact on cancer cells while reducing harm to healthy tissues. [15] The collaboration between HDC and stem cell transplantation has shown promise in cancer types like multiple myeloma and neuroblastoma. [16]

Immunomodulatory effects

Recent findings suggest that HDC triggers effects that enhance its therapeutic effectiveness. By disrupting the tumor microenvironment HDC releases tumor related antigens and warning signals prompting system activation and boosting immune cell activity such as T cells and natural killer cells, for improved antitumor responses. Moreover HDC may diminish tolerance levels and inhibit immunosuppressive cells potentially strengthening the immune mediated eradication of cancerous cells. [17]

Side effect

A photo showing stomach pain, which is one of the gastrointestinal issue. Stomach pain.jpg
A photo showing stomach pain, which is one of the gastrointestinal issue.

Bone marrow suppression

HDC can depress bone marrow, which lowers platelets, red blood cells, and white blood cells while raising the risk of bleeding, infections, and anemia. [18] Treatment for cancer frequently has this side effect, which can be managed with the use of cytokines such G-CSF and EPO. [19]

Gastrointestinal issues

Chemotherapy medications can seriously harm the gastrointestinal system, which can result in a variety of adverse symptoms include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and mouth sores. [20] The patient's general health and nutritional state may suffer as a result of these issues. Modulating nutrition has been suggested as a possible approach to lessen these effects; preclinical and clinical research have shown promise for some nutrients as glutamine, ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, and probiotics/prebiotics. [21] It has also been determined that the enteric nervous system, which regulates gastrointestinal processes, may be a viable therapeutic target to lessen the toxicity caused by chemotherapy. [22]

Photo of a male hair loss Male-pattern hair loss.jpg
Photo of a male hair loss

Hair loss

Depending on the particular medications used, HDC can cause hair loss, with different degrees of severity and length. [23] Patients are very concerned about this side effect, especially women, as it can significantly lower their quality of life. [24] It has been found that using scalp cooling to reduce hair loss during chemotherapy works well. [25]

Increased susceptibility to infections

HDC has the potential to weaken the immune system, making a person more vulnerable to bacterial, viral, and fungal infections. The body's first line of defense against fungal infections is compromised epithelial barriers and the suppression of innate immune cells. [26] Another worry is the antibody-dependent intensification of infections, which is more common in individuals who are neutropenic and is associated with high levels of specific antibodies that predict a higher risk of infectious episodes. [27] Granulocytopenia, which is frequently associated with chemotherapy, is a significant risk factor for infections, with individuals who have lower granulocyte counts having a higher incidence of infections. [28] Genetic differences in the innate immune system may also affect the duration and severity of infectious episodes in people with neutropenia. [29]

Fatigue

For patients receiving chemotherapy, cancer-related fatigue is a prevalent and crippling problem that drastically lowers quality of life and interferes with daily tasks. This weariness is similar to what healthy people go through, but it's more intense and enduring. [30]

Organ toxicity

Chemotherapy medications, including methotrexate, cisplatin, streptozotocin, and nitrosoureas, can cause renal and metabolic problems due to their nephrotoxic effects. [31] These medications may also cause renal failure or certain kidney lesions, like those in the glomeruli or tubules. [32] Certain chemotherapy medications might cause hepatotoxic side effects in addition to renal toxicity, which calls for a thorough evaluation of liver function before starting treatment and possible dose adjustments. [33]

Treatment with ASCT

Autologous stem cell transplantation (ASCT)

mechanism of bone marrow transplantation Bone Marrow Transplant.png
mechanism of bone marrow transplantation

ASCT is a critical component of cancer treatment that frequently follows HDC. This procedure involves the collection and subsequent infusion of a patient's own hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). ASCT serves as a supportive therapy to restore the patient's bone marrow function and mitigate the hematologic toxicity associated with HDC. This comprehensive overview examines the process, benefits, and limitations of ASCT in the context of HDC-based cancer treatment.

Before the initiation of HDC, the patient undergoes the stem cell collection process, also known as stem cell mobilization. This involves the administration of growth factors, such as granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), which stimulates the release of HSCs from the bone marrow into the peripheral blood. Once the HSCs reach a sufficient concentration in the blood, they are collected through apheresis, a procedure that separates the stem cells from the rest of the blood components. The collected stem cells are cryopreserved for later use during the transplantation phase. [14] Following stem cell collection, the patient receives HDC, which is administered at doses significantly higher than conventional chemotherapy regimens. HDC aims to maximize the cytotoxic effects on cancer cells, but it also causes severe damage to the bone marrow, leading to a depletion of blood cell populations. The intensified chemotherapy targets the tumor cells more effectively, while the patient's normal bone marrow function is temporarily suppressed.

Once the HDC treatment is completed, the cryopreserved autologous stem cells are thawed and infused back into the patient's bloodstream. The infused stem cells then migrate to the bone marrow, where they engraft and begin to restore normal blood cell production. [34] The recovery of the bone marrow function is essential for replenishing the depleted blood cell populations, such as red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Engraftment typically occurs within a few weeks following stem cell infusion. [16] During the engraftment period, patients are closely monitored for hematologic recovery, which includes the return of adequate blood cell counts. Supportive care measures, such as transfusions of blood products and administration of antibiotics or antifungal agents, may be required to manage complications associated with low blood cell counts and immunosuppression. The goal is to provide optimal supportive care until the patient's bone marrow function is fully restored, reducing the risk of complications and infections. [35]

ASCT following HDC has shown several benefits in cancer treatment. It allows for the administration of higher doses of chemotherapy, potentially leading to increased tumor response rates and improved disease control. ASCT also enables the rapid recovery of bone marrow function, reducing the duration of severe hematologic toxicity associated with HDC. This approach has demonstrated efficacy in various malignancies, including lymphomas, multiple myeloma, and certain solid tumors. [36]

However, it is important to note that ASCT is not suitable for all cancer patients. Factors such as age, overall health status, and the presence of comorbidities must be considered during the evaluation process. Additionally, ASCT is associated with potential risks, including infection, organ toxicity, and graft failure. [37] Therefore, careful patient selection, close monitoring, and appropriate supportive care are crucial to maximize the benefits and minimize the risks associated with this procedure.

History

After being examined in the 1960s and 1970s, the concept of HDC has been the subject of ongoing research and discussion. Although it has been widely used in the treatment of breast cancer, it remains uncertain if it is superior than standard-dose chemotherapy. [38] The goal of boosting the anticancer effects of chemotherapeutic medications, especially in the setting of bone marrow transplantation, has impacted the creation of HDC. [39] The evidence for its efficacy in managing advanced cancer, especially breast carcinoma, is still inconclusive, despite its contentious and widespread use. [40] When treating malignant brain tumors, HDC has been studied as a potential strategy to overcome the poor effectiveness of traditional chemotherapy. [41]

The significant developments in growth factors and supportive care during the 1980s allowed for the development of HDC regimens. The addition of stem cell transplantation—specifically, ASCT—which entails obtaining and preserving a patient's own healthy stem cells prior to the administration of HDC, further broadened this. Autologous peripheral stem cell transplantation is being used more frequently due to its potential advantages, which include a quicker return of bone marrow function and a reduction in the hematological toxicity linked to myelotoxic therapy. [42]

The use of HDC has advanced significantly, especially in the treatment of breast cancer. One significant advancement has been the use of adjuvant polychemotherapy, which includes taxanes and anthracyclines. [43] The best course of action for every given patient is still unknown, though, as financial concerns frequently play a role in treatment choices. [44] The development of metronomic regimens, which entail the consistent delivery of modest dosages of chemotherapy medications, has offered a possible tactic to raise response rates and lower toxicities. [45] With a move toward titrating therapy intensity to limit late effects, there is an increasing emphasis on limiting long-term toxicity in the context of lymphoma treatment. [46]

Recently, there has been a change in cancer treatment toward less toxic, more customized regimens. Metronomic chemotherapy, which involves regularly giving patients low dosages of chemotherapy drugs, is one instance of this. [46] This technique has been shown to have the potential to change the tumor microenvironment and limit tumor growth. [47] It is yet unknown how best to employ metronomic chemotherapy, especially for varied cancer types. [48]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Non-Hodgkin lymphoma</span> Type of cancer of lymph nodes

Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL), also known as non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, is a group of blood cancers that includes all types of lymphomas except Hodgkin lymphomas. Symptoms include enlarged lymph nodes, fever, night sweats, weight loss, and tiredness. Other symptoms may include bone pain, chest pain, or itchiness. Some forms are slow-growing while others are fast-growing. Unlike Hodgkin lymphoma, which spreads contiguously, NHL is largely a systemic illness.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lymphoma</span> Hematologic cancer that affects lymphocytes

Lymphoma is a group of blood and lymph tumors that develop from lymphocytes. The name typically refers to just the cancerous versions rather than all such tumours. Signs and symptoms may include enlarged lymph nodes, fever, drenching sweats, unintended weight loss, itching, and constantly feeling tired. The enlarged lymph nodes are usually painless. The sweats are most common at night.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation</span> Medical procedure to replace blood or immune stem cells

Hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation (HSCT) is the transplantation of multipotent hematopoietic stem cells, usually derived from bone marrow, peripheral blood, or umbilical cord blood, in order to replicate inside a patient and produce additional normal blood cells. HSCT may be autologous, syngeneic, or allogeneic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anaplastic large-cell lymphoma</span> Medical condition

Anaplastic large-cell lymphoma (ALCL) refers to a group of non-Hodgkin lymphomas in which aberrant T cells proliferate uncontrollably. Considered as a single entity, ALCL is the most common type of peripheral lymphoma and represents ~10% of all peripheral lymphomas in children. The incidence of ALCL is estimated to be 0.25 cases per 100,000 people in the United States of America. There are four distinct types of anaplastic large-cell lymphomas that on microscopic examination share certain key histopathological features and tumor marker proteins. However, the four types have very different clinical presentations, gene abnormalities, prognoses, and/or treatments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cyclophosphamide</span> Medication used as chemotherapy and to suppress the immune system

Cyclophosphamide (CP), also known as cytophosphane among other names, is a medication used as chemotherapy and to suppress the immune system. As chemotherapy it is used to treat lymphoma, multiple myeloma, leukemia, ovarian cancer, breast cancer, small cell lung cancer, neuroblastoma, and sarcoma. As an immune suppressor it is used in nephrotic syndrome, granulomatosis with polyangiitis, and following organ transplant, among other conditions. It is taken by mouth or injection into a vein.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of cancer chemotherapy</span>

The era of cancer chemotherapy began in the 1940s with the first use of nitrogen mustards and folic acid antagonist drugs. The targeted therapy revolution has arrived, but many of the principles and limitations of chemotherapy discovered by the early researchers still apply.

Total body irradiation (TBI) is a form of radiotherapy used primarily as part of the preparative regimen for haematopoietic stem cell transplantation. As the name implies, TBI involves irradiation of the entire body, though in modern practice the lungs are often partially shielded to lower the risk of radiation-induced lung injury. Total body irradiation in the setting of bone marrow transplantation serves to destroy or suppress the recipient's immune system, preventing immunologic rejection of transplanted donor bone marrow or blood stem cells. Additionally, high doses of total body irradiation can eradicate residual cancer cells in the transplant recipient, increasing the likelihood that the transplant will be successful.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">CHOP (chemotherapy)</span> Treatment for non-Hodgkin lymphoma

CHOP is the acronym for a chemotherapy regimen used in the treatment of non-Hodgkin lymphoma. CHOP consists of:

Lymphoid leukemias are a group of leukemias affecting circulating lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell. The lymphocytic leukemias are closely related to lymphomas of the lymphocytes, to the point that some of them are unitary disease entities that can be called by either name. Such diseases are all lymphoproliferative disorders. Most lymphoid leukemias involve a particular subtype of lymphocytes, the B cells.

Autotransplantation is the transplantation of organs, tissues, or even particular proteins from one part of the body to another in the same person.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">T-cell lymphoma</span> Cancerous overproduction of T cells

T cell lymphoma is a rare form of cancerous lymphoma affecting T cells. Lymphoma arises mainly from the uncontrolled proliferation of T cells and can become cancerous.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aggressive NK-cell leukemia</span> Medical condition

Aggressive NK-cell leukemia is a disease with an aggressive, systemic proliferation of natural killer cells and a rapidly declining clinical course.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mantle cell lymphoma</span> Type of blood cancer

Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a type of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, comprising about 6% of cases. It is named for the mantle zone of the lymph nodes where it develops. The term 'mantle cell lymphoma' was first adopted by Raffeld and Jaffe in 1991.

Subcutaneous T-cell lymphoma is a cutaneous condition that most commonly presents in young adults, and is characterized by subcutaneous nodules. Common symptoms include fever, fatigue, and pancytopenia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peripheral T-cell lymphoma not otherwise specified</span> Medical condition

Peripheral T-cell lymphoma not otherwise specified (PTCL-NOS), is a subtype of peripheral T-cell lymphoma. Peripheral T-cell lymphoma (PTCL) is defined as a diverse group of aggressive lymphomas that develop from mature-stage white blood cells called T-cells and natural killer cells. PTCL is a type of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL). PTCL specifically affects T-cells rather than B-cells, and results when T-cells develop and grow abnormally.

High-dose chemotherapy and bone marrow transplant (HDC/BMT), also high-dose chemotherapy with autologous bone marrow transplant, was an ineffective treatment regimen for metastatic breast cancer, and later high-risk breast cancer, that was considered promising during the 1980s and 1990s. With an overall idea that more is better, this process involved taking cells from the person's bone marrow to store in a lab, then to give such high doses of chemotherapy drugs that the remaining bone marrow was destroyed, and then to inject the cells taken earlier back into the body as replacement. It was ultimately determined to be no more effective than normal treatment, and to have significantly higher side effects, including treatment-related death.

Sequential high-dose chemotherapy is a chemotherapy regimen consisting of several sequential monochemotherapies with only one chemotherapeutic agent per course. The idea behind this approach is that when using single-agent chemotherapy, the doctor can easily escalate the dose of the drug to the maximum tolerable dose by the patient, avoiding additive hematological toxicity from chemotherapeutic combinations, and thus improving efficacy. It is mostly used as consolidation therapy for relapsed or refractory lymphomas and relapsed or refractory Hodgkin disease, after DHAP induction. There is also an ongoing trial of this approach in multiple myeloma.

Andrew Louis Pecora is an American hematologist and oncologist involved in research on the use of stem cells and oncolytic viruses to treat diseases, including cancer. He is the CEO of Outcomes Matter Innovations. As of 2020, he is on the Board of Directors Celularity, Inc. (since 2017) and founder and Executive Chairman, COTA, Inc.. Previously, he was chief innovations officer, professor and vice president of cancer services at the John Theurer Cancer Center, part of the Hackensack University Medical Center. He is a professor of medicine and oncology at Georgetown University.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shimon Slavin</span> Israeli professor of medicine

Shimon Slavin is an Israeli professor of medicine. He pioneered immunotherapy mediated by allogeneic donor lymphocytes and innovative methods for stem cell transplantation to cure hematological malignancies and solid tumors. He also used hematopoietic stem cells to induce transplantation tolerance to bone marrow and organ allografts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indolent lymphoma</span> Medical condition

Indolent lymphoma, also known as low-grade lymphoma, is a group of slow-growing non-Hodgkin lymphomas (NHLs). Because they spread slowly, they tend to have fewer signs and symptoms when first diagnosed and may not require immediate treatment. Symptoms can include swollen but painless lymph nodes, unexplained fever, and unintended weight loss.

References

  1. ↑ Nieto, Yago; Shpall, Elizabeth J. (2000). "High-Dose Chemotherapy for Breast Cancer". In Gradishar, William J.; Wood, William C. (eds.). Advances in Breast Cancer Management. Vol. 103. Springer. pp. 77–114. doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-3147-7_5. ISBN   978-1-4757-3147-7. PMID   10948443.{{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  2. ↑ Nieto, Yago; Shpall, Elizabeth J. (2004). "Hematopoietic Progenitor Cell Transplantation for Breast Cancer". In Soiffer, Robert J. (ed.). Stem Cell Transplantation for Hematologic Malignancies. Humana Press. pp. 99–132. doi:10.1007/978-1-59259-733-8_5. ISBN   978-1-59259-733-8.
  3. ↑ Mitsiades CS, Mitsiades N, Munshi NC, Anderson KC (November 2004). "Focus on multiple myeloma". Cancer Cell. 6 (5): 439–44. doi: 10.1016/j.ccr.2004.10.020 . PMID   15542427.
  4. ↑ Kumar L, Ghosh J, Ganessan P, Gupta A, Hariprasad R, Kochupillai V (March 2009). "High-dose chemotherapy with autologous stem cell transplantation for multiple myeloma: what predicts the outcome? Experience from a developing country". Bone Marrow Transplant. 43 (6): 481–9. doi:10.1038/bmt.2008.343. PMID   18978818.
  5. ↑ Rancea M, von Tresckow B, Monsef I, Engert A, Skoetz N (October 2014). "High-dose chemotherapy followed by autologous stem cell transplantation for patients with relapsed or refractory Hodgkin lymphoma: a systematic review with meta-analysis". Crit Rev Oncol Hematol. 92 (1): 1–10. doi:10.1016/j.critrevonc.2014.04.003. PMID   24855908.
  6. ↑ Schmitz N, Dreger P, Suttorp M, Rohwedder EB, Haferlach T, Löffler H, Hunter A, Russell NH (March 1995). "Primary transplantation of allogeneic peripheral blood progenitor cells mobilized by filgrastim (granulocyte colony-stimulating factor)". Blood. 85 (6): 1666–72. doi:10.1182/blood.V85.6.1666.bloodjournal8561666. PMID   7534141.
  7. ↑ Einhorn LH (November 1990). "Treatment of testicular cancer: a new and improved model". J Clin Oncol. 8 (11): 1777–81. doi:10.1200/JCO.1990.8.11.1777. PMID   1700077.
  8. ↑ Berry DA, Ueno NT, Johnson MM, Lei X, Caputo J, Rodenhuis S, Peters WP, Leonard RC, Barlow WE, Tallman MS, Bergh J, Nitz UA, Gianni AM, Basser RL, Zander AR, Coombes RC, Roché H, Tokuda Y, de Vries EG, Hortobagyi GN, Crown JP, Pedrazzoli P, Bregni M, Demirer T (August 2011). "High-dose chemotherapy with autologous stem-cell support as adjuvant therapy in breast cancer: overview of 15 randomized trials". J Clin Oncol. 29 (24): 3214–23. doi:10.1200/JCO.2010.32.5910. PMC   4322115 . PMID   21768471.
  9. ↑ Hosing C, Saliba RM, Okoroji GJ, Popat U, Couriel D, Ali T, De Padua Silva L, Kebriaei P, Alousi A, De Lima M, Qazilbash M, Anderlini P, Giralt S, Champlin RE, Khouri I (June 2008). "High-dose chemotherapy and autologous hematopoietic progenitor cell transplantation for non-Hodgkin's lymphoma in patients >65 years of age". Ann Oncol. 19 (6): 1166–71. doi:10.1093/annonc/mdm608. PMC   4112363 . PMID   18272911.
  10. ↑ Cornbleet MA, Leonard RC, Smyth JF (1984). "High-dose alkylating agent therapy: a review of clinical experiences". Cancer Drug Deliv. 1 (3): 227–38. doi:10.1089/cdd.1984.1.227. PMID   6399859.
  11. ↑ Kelland L (August 2007). "The resurgence of platinum-based cancer chemotherapy". Nat Rev Cancer. 7 (8): 573–84. doi:10.1038/nrc2167. PMID   17625587.
  12. ↑ Curnis F, Sacchi A, Corti A (August 2002). "Improving chemotherapeutic drug penetration in tumors by vascular targeting and barrier alteration". J Clin Invest. 110 (4): 475–82. doi:10.1172/JCI15223. PMC   150417 . PMID   12189241.
  13. ↑ Jain RK (June 1987). "Transport of molecules in the tumor interstitium: a review". Cancer Res. 47 (12): 3039–51. PMID   3555767.
  14. 1 2 Bensinger W, Appelbaum F, Rowley S, Storb R, Sanders J, Lilleby K, Gooley T, Demirer T, Schiffman K, Weaver C (October 1995). "Factors that influence collection and engraftment of autologous peripheral-blood stem cells". J Clin Oncol. 13 (10): 2547–55. doi:10.1200/JCO.1995.13.10.2547. PMID   7595706.
  15. ↑ Corrie PG (2008). "Cytotoxic chemotherapy: clinical aspects". Medicine. 36 (1): 24–28. doi:10.1016/j.mpmed.2007.10.012n (inactive 1 November 2024).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  16. 1 2 Bhatia S, Ramsay NK, Steinbuch M, Dusenbery KE, Shapiro RS, Weisdorf DJ, Robison LL, Miller JS, Neglia JP (May 1996). "Malignant neoplasms following bone marrow transplantation". Blood. 87 (9): 3633–9. doi:10.1182/blood.V87.9.3633.bloodjournal8793633. PMID   8611687.
  17. ↑ Zitvogel L, Apetoh L, Ghiringhelli F, Kroemer G (January 2008). "Immunological aspects of cancer chemotherapy". Nat Rev Immunol. 8 (1): 59–73. doi:10.1038/nri2216. PMID   18097448.
  18. ↑ Lokich, Jacob J. (1978). "Clinical Management of Marrow Suppression and Immune Suppression". Primer of Cancer Management. Springer. pp. 106–121. doi:10.1007/978-94-010-9678-2_7. ISBN   978-94-010-9678-2.
  19. ↑ Urabe A (June 2003). "[Bone marrow suppression]". Nihon Rinsho (in Japanese). 61 (6): 949–53. doi: 10.32388/ksgs2b . PMID   12806941. S2CID   29619639.
  20. ↑ Calixto-Lima L, Martins de Andrade E, Gomes AP, Geller M, Siqueira-Batista R (2012). "Dietetic management in gastrointestinal complications from antimalignant chemotherapy". Nutr Hosp. 27 (1): 65–75. doi:10.1590/S0212-16112012000100008 (inactive 1 November 2024). PMID   22566305.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  21. ↑ Xue H, Sawyer MB, Wischmeyer PE, Baracos VE (January 2011). "Nutrition modulation of gastrointestinal toxicity related to cancer chemotherapy: from preclinical findings to clinical strategy". JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 35 (1): 74–90. doi:10.1177/0148607110377338. PMID   21224434.
  22. ↑ Escalante J, McQuade RM, Stojanovska V, Nurgali K (November 2017). "Impact of chemotherapy on gastrointestinal functions and the enteric nervous system". Maturitas. 105: 23–29. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2017.04.021. PMID   28545907.
  23. ↑ Wujcik D (May 1992). "Current research in side effects of high-dose chemotherapy". Semin Oncol Nurs. 8 (2): 102–12. doi:10.1016/0749-2081(92)90026-y. PMID   1621001.
  24. ↑ Trüeb RM (2010). "Chemotherapy-induced hair loss". Skin Therapy Lett. 15 (7): 5–7. PMID   20700552.
  25. ↑ van den Hurk, C.J.G.; Breed, W.P.M.; Mols, F. (2012). "Chemotherapy-induced hair loss". In Preedy, Victor R. (ed.). Handbook of hair in health and disease. Human Health Handbook. Vol. 1. Springer. pp. 402–416. doi:10.3920/978-90-8686-728-8_2 (inactive 2024-11-02). ISBN   978-90-8686-728-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  26. ↑ Teoh F, Pavelka N (January 2016). "How Chemotherapy Increases the Risk of Systemic Candidiasis in Cancer Patients: Current Paradigm and Future Directions". Pathogens. 5 (1): 6. doi: 10.3390/pathogens5010006 . PMC   4810127 . PMID   26784236.
  27. ↑ Bernth-Jensen JM, Møller BK, Thiel S, Hansen AT (2019). "Antibody Dependent Enhancement of Infections after High Dose Chemotherapy". Blood. 134 (Suppl 1): 1047. doi:10.1182/blood-2019-122236.
  28. ↑ Bishop JF, Schimpff SC, Diggs CH, Wiernik PH (November 1981). "Infections during intensive chemotherapy for non-Hodgkin's lymphoma". Ann Intern Med. 95 (5): 549–55. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-95-5-549. PMID   7294544.
  29. ↑ Neth OW, Bajaj-Elliott M, Turner MW, Klein NJ (June 2005). "Susceptibility to infection in patients with neutropenia: the role of the innate immune system". Br J Haematol. 129 (6): 713–22. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2141.2005.05462.x. PMID   15952996.
  30. ↑ Curt GA, Breitbart W, Cella D, Groopman JE, Horning SJ, Itri LM, Johnson DH, Miaskowski C, Scherr SL, Portenoy RK, Vogelzang NJ (2000). "Impact of cancer-related fatigue on the lives of patients: new findings from the Fatigue Coalition". Oncologist. 5 (5): 353–60. doi:10.1634/theoncologist.5-5-353. PMID   11040270.
  31. ↑ Irvine D, Vincent L, Graydon JE, Bubela N, Thompson L (October 1994). "The prevalence and correlates of fatigue in patients receiving treatment with chemotherapy and radiotherapy. A comparison with the fatigue experienced by healthy individuals". Cancer Nurs. 17 (5): 367–78. doi:10.1097/00002820-199410000-00001. PMID   7954384.
  32. ↑ Schilsky RL (March 1982). "Renal and metabolic toxicities of cancer chemotherapy". Semin Oncol. 9 (1): 75–83. PMID   7200263.
  33. ↑ Patterson WP, Reams GP (October 1992). "Renal toxicities of chemotherapy". Semin Oncol. 19 (5): 521–8. PMID   1411650.
  34. ↑ Schwella N, Beyer J, Schwaner I, Heuft HG, Rick O, Huhn D, Serke S, Siegert W (April 1996). "Impact of preleukapheresis cell counts on collection results and correlation of progenitor-cell dose with engraftment after high-dose chemotherapy in patients with germ cell cancer". J Clin Oncol. 14 (4): 1114–21. doi:10.1200/JCO.1996.14.4.1114. PMID   8648365.
  35. ↑ Copelan EA (April 2006). "Hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation". N Engl J Med. 354 (17): 1813–26. doi:10.1056/NEJMra052638. PMID   16641398.
  36. ↑ Philip T, Guglielmi C, Hagenbeek A, Somers R, Van der Lelie H, Bron D, Sonneveld P, Gisselbrecht C, Cahn JY, Harousseau JL (December 1995). "Autologous bone marrow transplantation as compared with salvage chemotherapy in relapses of chemotherapy-sensitive non-Hodgkin's lymphoma". N Engl J Med. 333 (23): 1540–5. doi:10.1056/NEJM199512073332305. PMID   7477169.
  37. ↑ Christopeit M, Schmidt-Hieber M, Sprute R, Buchheidt D, Hentrich M, Karthaus M, Penack O, Ruhnke M, Weissinger F, Cornely OA, Maschmeyer G (February 2021). "Prophylaxis, diagnosis and therapy of infections in patients undergoing high-dose chemotherapy and autologous haematopoietic stem cell transplantation. 2020 update of the recommendations of the Infectious Diseases Working Party (AGIHO) of the German Society of Hematology and Medical Oncology (DGHO)". Ann Hematol. 100 (2): 321–336. doi:10.1007/s00277-020-04297-8. PMC   7572248 . PMID   33079221.
  38. ↑ King PD, Perry MC (2001). "Hepatotoxicity of chemotherapy". Oncologist. 6 (2): 162–76. doi:10.1634/theoncologist.6-2-162. PMID   11306728.
  39. ↑ Gradishar WJ, Tallman MS, Abrams JS (October 1996). "High-dose chemotherapy for breast cancer". Ann Intern Med. 125 (7): 599–604. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-125-7-199610010-00010. PMID   8815759.
  40. ↑ Hortobagyi GN (June 2004). "What is the role of high-dose chemotherapy in the era of targeted therapies?". J Clin Oncol. 22 (12): 2263–6. doi:10.1200/JCO.2004.02.927. PMID   15111620.
  41. ↑ Coleman RE (June 2000). "High dose chemotherapy: rationale and results in breast carcinoma". Cancer. 88 (12 Suppl): 3059–64. doi:10.1002/1097-0142(20000615)88:12+<3059::aid-cncr24>3.0.co;2-h. PMID   10898352.
  42. ↑ Kessinger A, Armitage JO (1993). "The use of peripheral stem cell support of high-dose chemotherapy". Important Adv Oncol: 167–75. PMID   8099339.
  43. ↑ Pedrazzoli P, Ledermann JA, Lotz JP, Leyvraz S, Aglietta M, Rosti G, Champion KM, Secondino S, Selle F, Ketterer N, Grignani G, Siena S, Demirer T (October 2006). "High dose chemotherapy with autologous hematopoietic stem cell support for solid tumors other than breast cancer in adults". Ann Oncol. 17 (10): 1479–88. doi: 10.1093/annonc/mdl044 . PMID   16547069.
  44. ↑ Morris PG, McArthur HL, Hudis C, Norton L (June 2010). "Dose-dense chemotherapy for breast cancer: what does the future hold?". Future Oncol. 6 (6): 951–65. doi:10.2217/fon.10.59. PMID   20528233.
  45. ↑ Hussain SA, Palmer DH, Stevens A, Spooner D, Poole CJ, Rea DW (December 2005). "Role of chemotherapy in breast cancer". Expert Rev Anticancer Ther. 5 (6): 1095–110. doi:10.1586/14737140.5.6.1095. PMID   16336100.
  46. 1 2 Benzekry S, Pasquier E, Barbolosi D, Lacarelle B, Barlési F, André N, Ciccolini J (December 2015). "Metronomic reloaded: Theoretical models bringing chemotherapy into the era of precision medicine" (PDF). Semin Cancer Biol. 35: 53–61. doi:10.1016/j.semcancer.2015.09.002. PMID   26361213.
  47. ↑ Loven D, Hasnis E, Bertolini F, Shaked Y (February 2013). "Low-dose metronomic chemotherapy: from past experience to new paradigms in the treatment of cancer". Drug Discov Today. 18 (3–4): 193–201. doi:10.1016/j.drudis.2012.07.015. PMID   22868084.
  48. ↑ Barbolosi D, Ciccolini J, Meille C, Elharrar X, Faivre C, Lacarelle B, André N, Barlesi F (September 2014). "Metronomics chemotherapy: time for computational decision support". Cancer Chemother Pharmacol. 74 (3): 647–52. doi:10.1007/s00280-014-2546-1. PMID   25082520.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.