Languages of Brunei

Last updated

Languages of Brunei
Jalan Pretty.jpg
Sign on Jalan Pretty ("Pretty Road") in Bandar Seri Bagawan in Malay and in Jawi script
Official Malay
Vernacular Brunei Malay, Brunei English
Minority Tutong, Kedayan, Belait, Murut, Dusun (Brunei), Brunei Bisaya
Foreign English, Arabic, Chinese (Hokkien, Hakka, Mandarin and Cantonese)
Signed American Sign Language
Keyboard layout
Source [1]
Sign in Bandar Seri Bagawan in Malay (Latin and Jawi script), English, Traditional Chinese, Korean and Arabic. Bandar Seri Begawan 30012022 (5).jpg
Sign in Bandar Seri Bagawan in Malay (Latin and Jawi script), English, Traditional Chinese, Korean and Arabic.

There are a number of languages spoken in Brunei. [2] The official language of the state of Brunei is Standard Malay, the same Malaccan dialect that is the basis for the standards in Malaysia and Indonesia. [3] This came into force on 29 September 1959, with the signing of Brunei 1959 Constitution. [4]

Contents

Standard Malay

Malay is specified as the national language of Brunei in the constitution of 1959, [5] and its central role in the country is reinforced in the national philosophy of a "Islamic Malay Monarchy" (Melayu Islam Beraja). [6]

While the variety of Malay that functions as the national language is not specified, it is generally assumed to be a variety of Standard Malay that is similar to the standard varieties promoted in Malaysia and Indonesia. [7]

In fact, the use of Standard Malay and Brunei Malay can be described under the concept of diglossia, [8] with Standard Malay taking the H(igh) role and being used in formal domains such as teaching and official speeches, while Brunei Malay functions in a L(ow) role, being used in informal domains such as between friends and in local shops. [9]

In terms of pronunciation, Standard Bruneian Malay share more phonetic features with Indonesian than Malaysian such as rhoticity (i.e [r] at the end of words such as besar "big") and a lack of final schwa (i.e. [a] rather than [ə]) at the end of words such as saya ('I') and utara ('north'). [7] [10] Pronunciation can differ slightly from that of Peninsular Malaysia, influenced by local dialects. [11] Standard Bruneian Malay is also unique compared to Malaysian and Indonesian for its tendency of cresting pitch in enunciating penultimate syllables unless a schwa is present. [7]

Brunei Malay

The local dialect, Brunei Malay, is the most widely spoken language. [3] It is spoken by about 266,000 people. [12] About 84% of its words are cognate with Standard Malay, while 94% are reported to be cognate with Kedayan. [11]

Brunei Malay is also spoken as a lingua franca in some parts of East Malaysia such as the Federal Territory of Labuan, the districts of Limbang and Lawas (Sarawak) and the districts of Sipitang, Beaufort, Kuala Penyu and Papar (Sabah). [13] In Brunei, use of Brunei Malay is expanding at the expense of the other indigenous minority languages in Brunei, most of which are under threat of extinction. [14]

Some of the phonological features of Brunei Malay are: /h/ cannot occur in initial position, so Standard Malay habis (finish) is abis in Brunei Malay; [15] and there are only three vowels, /i,a,u/. [16] For its syntax, it has been claimed that the verb often occurs in initial position, [17] and there is a distinct set of modal verbs. [18]

The most salient difference between the pronunciation of Brunei Malay and Kedayan is that the latter has no /r/ sound, [19] so rambut (hair) in Brunei Malay is ambut in Kedayan. [20]

English

English is widely used as a business, all official documents are reproduced in English, and it is spoken by a majority of the population in Brunei, [21] though some people have only a rudimentary knowledge of the language. [22] There is one daily English language newspaper, Borneo Bulletin.

The bilingual system of education was introduced in 1985, with the first three years taught in Malay while English was the medium of instruction for most subjects from the fourth year of primary school onward, [23] so all school children have had substantial exposure to English since then. In 2008, the new SPN21 education system was introduced, and from then on, maths and science have been taught in English from the start of primary school, so the role of English is even more firmly established. [21]

The language of the courts is mainly English, [24] though, just as in Malaysia, code-switching between English and Malay is common. [25] While formal English is based on British English, American English is having increasing influence, and Brunei English is becoming distinct in its own right. [26]

One result of the promotion of both English and Malay in Brunei is that minority languages, such as Tutong and Dusun, tend to get squeezed out. Noor Azam has described the situation using the Malay proverb: Gajah berperang, pelanduk mati di tengah-tengah. ('When elephants fight, the mouse-deer between them dies.') [27]

Some features of the pronunciation of English in Brunei are: the TH sound at the start of words such as thin and think tends to be pronounced as [t]; [28] vowel reduction is mostly avoided in function words such as of and that; [21] and there is an increasing incidence of rhoticity. [29] [30]

Indonesian

Due to the increasing immigration from the Indonesian population to Brunei, it also increases the usage of the Indonesian language throughout the country. This includes the increasing usage in day to day conversations as well as business related activities such as advertising. [31]

Indonesians are one of the major migrants in Brunei with around 80,000 of Indonesians residing in the country that has a total population of around 430,000 as of 2022.

Chinese

The Chinese minority in Brunei speak a number of Chinese varieties. [32] The main varieties of Chinese spoken include Hokkien, Cantonese and Hakka. [33]

Mandarin is the language of instruction in some Chinese schools, and there are also some radio broadcasts in Mandarin. [33] Mandarin is also used as the lingua franca among the Chinese community. [34]

Indigenous languages

Apart from Brunei Malay and Kedayan, the latter which may be considered a dialect of Malay, five indigenous minority ethnic groups are officially recognised in Brunei, each with their own language: Tutong, Belait, Dusun (Brunei), Bisaya, and Murut. [9] Each of these five minority languages is threatened with extinction, [14] though it has been reported that Murut (which is spoken mostly in the enclave of Temburong) is relatively healthy, partly because it receives some support across the Malaysian border in Lawas, where it is known as Lun Bawang. [35]

Of these minority languages, Dusun and Bisaya are quite similar, and some have claimed they are varieties of the same language. [36] It is also sometimes suggested that Tutong and Belait are related, [37] though the level of shared lexicon for these two languages is just 54%. [11]

Iban is also quite widely spoken in Temburong, [35] and there is a small community of Penan speakers living in a longhouse along the Belait River. [38]

Arabic

Arabic is the language of the Quran and is used by Islamic scholars in Brunei. The official religion of Brunei is Islam [39] and as such, all adherents of the faith possess some proficiency in reading and speaking Arabic.[ citation needed ]

Arabic is taught in schools, particularly religious schools. All muslim children are required by law to attend an Ugama School ('Religious School') for three hours five days per week from the ages of 7 till 15, and the curriculum of these schools promotes the learning of Arabic as well as skill using Jawi, the Arabic-based script for representing Malay. [40]

In addition to the Ugama Schools, as of 2004, there were six Arabic schools and one religious teachers' college in Brunei. [41]

Indian languages

The Indian minority in Brunei originates mostly from southern India.[ citation needed ] They are joined by a relatively large expatriate community, estimated at 7,500, from India. [42] Tamil is mainly spoken by Indians in Brunei.

Nepali languages

There is also a contingent of Nepali soldiers of the Gurkha Reserve Unit in Sungai Akar camp and 1st and 2nd Battalion of the Royal Gurkha Rifles stationed in Seria, Brunei.[ citation needed ] The language spoken by most of these soldiers is Gurkhali. There are Gurkhali languages services provided by Radio Television Brunei [43] and the British Forces Broadcasting Service. [44]

Expatriate languages

Besides the expatriate Indians, Brunei also has a large expatriate community of Filipino, [45] Indonesian, Dutch, Korean and English-speaking [46] origins. Betawi, Javanese, Sundanese, Ambonese and Batak languages are also spoken by immigrants from Indonesia.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brunei</span> Country in Southeast Asia

Brunei, officially Brunei Darussalam, is a country in Southeast Asia, situated on the northern coast of the island of Borneo. Apart from its coastline on the South China Sea, it is completely surrounded by the Malaysian state of Sarawak, with its territory bifurcated by the Sarawak district of Limbang. Brunei is the only sovereign state entirely on Borneo; the remainder of the island is divided between its multi-landmass neighbours of Malaysia and Indonesia. As of 2023, the country had a population of 455,858, of whom approximately 180,000 resided in the capital and largest city of Bandar Seri Begawan. Its official language is Malay and Islam is the state religion of the country, although other religions are nominally tolerated. The government of Brunei is a constitutional absolute monarchy ruled by the Sultan, and it implements a fusion of English common law and jurisprudence inspired by Islam, including sharia.

Malay may refer to:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Malay language</span> Austronesian language of Southeast Asia

Malay is an Austronesian language that is an official language of Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore, and that is also spoken in East Timor and parts of Thailand. Altogether, it is spoken by 290 million people across Maritime Southeast Asia.

Singapore English is the set of varieties of the English language native to Singapore. In Singapore, English is spoken in two main forms: Singaporean Standard English, which is indistinguishable grammatically from British English, and Singaporean Colloquial English, which is better known as Singlish.

The indigenous peoples of Brunei are Bruneian people who belong to the ethnic groups considered indigenous to the country. It is more commonly attributed to indigenous people of the Malay race belonging to the seven ethnic groups, namely: Brunei, Tutong, Belait, Dusun, Murut, Kedayan and Bisaya. The local term rakyat jati refers to citizens of indigenous descent, in particular the aforementioned seven ethnic groups. The term bumiputera has also been sometimes used to refer to the indigenous peoples.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Malaysian Malay</span> Official language of Malaysia

Malaysian Malay, also known as Standard Malay, Bahasa Malaysia, or simply Malay, is a standardized form of the Malay language used in Malaysia and also used in Brunei and Singapore. Malaysian Malay is standardized from the Johore-Riau dialect of Malay. It is spoken by much of the Malaysian population, although most learn a vernacular form of Malay or another native language first. Malay is a compulsory subject in primary and secondary schools.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kedayan</span> Ethnic group in Borneo

The Kedayan are an ethnic group residing in Brunei, Federal Territory of Labuan, southwest of Sabah, and north of Sarawak on the island of Borneo. According to the Language and Literature Bureau of Brunei, the Kedayan language is spoken by about 30,000 people in Brunei, and it has been claimed that there are a further 46,500 speakers in Sabah and 37,000 in Sarawak. In Sabah, the Kedayan mainly live in the southern districts of Sipitang and Beaufort, where they are counted as a part of the local Malay populace. Whilst in Sarawak, the Kedayans mostly reside in the towns of Lawas, Limbang and Miri.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Culture of Brunei</span>

The culture of Brunei is strongly influenced by Malay culture and Islam. The culture is also influenced by the demographic makeup of the country: more than two-thirds of the population are Malay, and the remainder consists of Chinese, Indians and indigenous groups such as Muruts, Bisaya Brunei, Brunei Dusun and Kedayans. While Standard Malay is the official language of Brunei, languages such as Brunei Malay and English are more commonly spoken.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Singlish</span> Creole language spoken in Singapore

Singlish, formally known as Colloquial Singaporean English, is an English-based creole language originating in Singapore. Singlish arose out of a situation of prolonged language contact between speakers of many different Asian languages in Singapore, such as Malay, Cantonese, Hokkien, Mandarin, Teochew, and Tamil. The term Singlish refers to a blend of Singaporean slang and English and was first recorded in the early 1970s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kelabit language</span> Austronesian language spoken on Borneo

Kelabit is one of the most remote languages of Borneo, on the Sarawak–North Kalimantan border. It is spoken by one of the smallest ethnicities in Borneo, the Kelabit people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bruneian Malays</span> Malay ethnic group in Brunei

Bruneian Malays are a native Malay ethnic group that lives in Brunei, the federal territory of Labuan, the southwestern coast of Sabah and the northern parts of Sarawak. The Bruneian Malays are a subgroup of the larger ethnic Malay population found in the other parts of the Malay World, namely Peninsular Malaysia and the central and southern areas of Sarawak including neighbouring lands such as Singapore, Indonesia and Southern Thailand, having visible differences especially in language and culture, even though they are ethnically related to each other and follow the teachings of Islam. All Bruneian Malays who are born or domiciled in East Malaysia even for generations before or after the independence of the states of Sabah and Sarawak from the British Empire through the formation of Malaysia in 1963 are also considered Malaysian Malays in the national census and were in the same status like the Malaysian Malays domiciled in Peninsular Malaysian states and the central and southern parts of Sarawak. They are also defined as a part of the Bumiputera racial classification together as a subgroup within the Malaysian Malay ethnic population along with the Kadazan-Dusuns, Orang Ulu, Ibans, Malaccan Portuguese, Muruts, Orang Sungai, Bajau, Suluks and the Malaysian Siamese.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brunei Malay</span> Language spoken in parts of Southeast Asia

The Brunei Malay language, also called Bruneian Malay language, is the most widely spoken language in Brunei and a lingua franca in some parts of Sarawak and Sabah, such as Labuan, Limbang, Lawas, Sipitang and Papar. Though Standard Malay is promoted as the official national language of Brunei, Brunei Malay is socially dominant and it is currently replacing the minority languages of Brunei, including the Dusun and Tutong languages, existing in a diglossic speech, wherein Brunei Malay is commonly used for daily communication, coexisting with the aforementioned regional languages and Malay creoles, and standard Malay used in formal speech; code switching between standard Malay and Brunei Malay is spoken in informal speech as a lingua franca between Malay creoles and regional languages. It is quite similar to Standard Malay to the point of being almost mutually intelligible with it, being about 84% cognate with standard Malay. Standard Malay is usually spoken with Brunei pronunciation.

The Tutong language, also known as Basa Tutong, is a language spoken by approximately 17,000 people in Brunei. It is the main language of the Tutong people, the majority ethnic group in the Tutong District of Brunei.

This article explains the phonology of Malay and Indonesian based on the pronunciation of Standard Malay, which is the official language of Brunei and Singapore, "Malaysian" of Malaysia, and Indonesian the official language of Indonesia and a working language in Timor Leste. There are two main standards for Malay pronunciation, the Johor-Riau standard, used in Brunei and Malaysia, and the Baku, used in Indonesia and Singapore.

Saʼban is one of the remoter languages of Borneo, on the Sarawak–Kalimantan border. The language is known as hmeu Saʼban in the Saʼban language.

Brunei English is a regional dialect of English that is widely spoken in Brunei Darussalam, even though the national language is Malay. Although the lingua franca in the country is generally the local dialect of Malay, all educated people are proficient in English, as it has been the medium of instruction from the fourth year of primary school since 1985.

Bacan Malay or Bacan is a Malayic language spoken on the island of Bacan in North Maluku province, Indonesia, by the minor Bacan ethnic group. It is an anomalous presence in the region, being surrounded by genetically distant Austronesian languages and languages of the unrelated North Halmahera family. Bacan is geographically removed from the Malay heartlands in the western archipelago.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Languages in censuses</span>

Many countries and national censuses currently enumerate or have previously enumerated their populations by languages, native language, home language, level of knowing language or a combination of these characteristics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tutong people</span> Indigenous ethnic group in Brunei

The Tutong people are an ethnic group native to Brunei, mainly in Tutong District. They traditionally speak the Tutong language. They are officially recognised as one of the seven ethnic groups of the Bruneian Malay race.

References

  1. ↑ "Brunei youth pick up sign language skills » Borneo Bulletin Online". 26 September 2020.
  2. ↑ Martin, P. W., & Poedjosoedarmo, G. (1996). An overview of the language situation in Brunei Darussalam. In P. W. Martin, C. Ozog & G. Poedjosoedarmo (Eds.), Language use & language change in Brunei Darussalam (pp. 1-23). Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Center for International Studies.
  3. 1 2 Gallop, 2006. "Brunei Darussalam: Language Situation". In Keith Brown, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (2 ed.). Elsevier. ISBN   0-08-044299-4.
  4. ↑ Language and Literature Bureau Brief History Archived 2 May 2007 at the Wayback Machine - retrieved 20-04-2007
  5. ↑ Hussainmiya, B. A. (2001). The Brunei constitution of 1959: An inside history, 2nd ed. Bandar Seri Begawan: Brunei Press.
  6. ↑ Jones, G. M. (2016). Changing patterns of education in Brunei: How past plans have shaped future trends. In Noor Azam H-O., J. McLellan & D. Deterding (Eds.), The use and status of Language in Brunei Darussalam (pp. 267-278). Singapore: Springer.
  7. 1 2 3 Clynes, A., & Deterding, D. (2011). Standard Malay (Brunei). Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 41, 259–268.On-line Version doi : 10.1017/S002510031100017X
  8. ↑ Ferguson, C. A. (1959). Diglossia. Word, 15, 325-340.
  9. 1 2 McLellan, J., Noor Azam H-O., & Deterding, D. (2016). The language situation in Brunei Darussalam. In Noor Azam H-O., J. McLellan & D. Deterding (Eds.), The use and status of Language in Brunei Darussalam (pp. 9-16). Singapore: Springer.
  10. ↑ Asmah Haji Omar (1992). "Malay as a pluricentric language". In Clyne, Michael J. (ed.). Malay as a pluricentric language Pluricentric Languages: Differing Norms in Different Nations. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyte. pp. 404–5. ISBN   3-11-012855-1.
  11. 1 2 3 Nothofer, B. (1991). The languages of Brunei Darussalam. In H. Steinhuaer (Ed.), Papers in Austronesian Linguistics (pp. 151–176). Canberra: Australian National University.
  12. ↑ "Brunei". Ethnologue.
  13. ↑ Clynes, A. (2014). Brunei Malay: An overview. In P. Sercombe, M. Boutin & A. Clynes (Eds.), Advances in research on linguistic and cultural practices in Borneo (pp. 153-200). Phillips, ME: Borneo Research Council.
  14. 1 2 Noor-Azam H-O., & Siti Ajeerah, N. (2016). The state of indigenous languages in Brunei. In Noor Azam H-O., J. McLellan & D. Deterding (Eds.), The use and status of Language in Brunei Darussalam (pp. 17-28). Singapore: Springer.
  15. ↑ DBPB (2007). Kamus Bahasa Melayu Brunei, 2nd ed. BSB: Dewean Bahasa dan Pustaka Brunei, p. 1.
  16. ↑ Deterding, D., & Ishamina Athirah (2017). Brunei Malay. Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 47(1), 99–108. On-line Version
  17. ↑ Poedjosoedarmo, G., & Hj Rosnah Hj Ramly (1996). Some notes on Brunei Malay syntax. In P. W. Martin, C. Ozog & G. Poedjosoedarmo (Eds), Language Use & Language Change in Brunei Darussalam (pp. 60-72). Athens, OH: Ohio University Center for International Studies.
  18. ↑ Aznah, S. (2016). Comprehension of aspect markers by Brunei Malay L1 learners. In Noor Azam H-O., J. McLellan & D. Deterding (Eds.), The use and status of Language in Brunei Darussalam (pp. 75-94). Singapore: Springer.
  19. ↑ Faahirah, R., & Deterding, D. (2019). The pronunciation of Kedayan, South East Asia, 19, 78–85. On-line Version
  20. ↑ DBPB (2006). Kamus Kedayan-Melayu Melayu-Kedayan. Berakas: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka Brunei.
  21. 1 2 3 Deterding, D., & Salbrina, S. (2013). Brunei English: A New Variety in a Multilingual Society. Dordrecht: Springer.
  22. ↑ Wood, A., Henry, A., Malai Ayla Hj Abd., & Clynes, A. (2011). English in Brunei: "She speaks excellent English" – "No he doesn't". In L. J. Zhang, R. Rubdy & L. Alsagoff (Eds.), Asian Englishes: Changing Perspectives in a Globalized World (pp. 52–66). Singapore: Pearson.
  23. ↑ Jones, G. (1996). The Brunei education policy in Brunei Darussalam. In P. W. Martin, A. C. K. Ozog & G. Poedjoesoedarmo (eds.), Language Use and Language Change in Brunei Darussalam (123-132). Athens, OH: Ohio University Center for International Studies.
  24. ↑ Hjh Masmahirah Hj Mohd Tali (2016). Courtroom discourse: A case study of the linguistic strategies in Brunei courtooms. In Noor Azam H-O., J. McLellan & D. Deterding (Eds.), The use and status of Language in Brunei Darussalam (pp. 135-163). Singapore: Springer.
  25. ↑ Powell, R. (2009). Language alternation in Malaysia courtrooms and comparisons with other common law jurisdictions. In M. K. David, J. McLellan, S. Rafik-Galea & A. N. Abdullah (Eds.), Code switching in Malaysi (pp. 135-149). Frankfurt: Peter Lang.
  26. ↑ Goode, Claire (2020). "English language in Brunei: Use, policy, and status in education – A review". Indonesian JELT. 15 (1): 24. doi: 10.25170/ijelt.v15i1.1411 .
  27. ↑ Noor Azam (2012). It's not always English: "Duelling Aunties" in Brunei Darussalam. In V. Rapatahana & P. Bunce (eds.), English Language as Hydra. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
  28. ↑ Mossop, J. (1996). Some phonological features of Brunei English. In P. W. Martin, A. C. K. Ozog & G. Poedjoesoedarmo (eds.), Language Use and Language Change in Brunei Darussalam (189-208). Athens, OH: Ohio University Center for International Studies.
  29. ↑ Salbrina, S., & Deterding, D. (2010). Rhoticity in Brunei English. English World-Wide 31: 121-137
  30. ↑ Nur Raihan Mohamad (2017). Rhoticity in Brunei English : A diachronic approach. Southeast Asia, 17, 1-7. PDF Version
  31. ↑ 6 countries that use Indonesian - retrieved 14-08-2024
  32. ↑ Brunei at a Glance BruDirect Archived 12 October 1999 at the Wayback Machine - retrieved 20-04-2007
  33. 1 2 Xu, S. (2016). A comparison of the vowels of Brunei Mandarin and Beijing Mandarin. In Noor Azam H-O., J. McLellan & D. Deterding (Eds.), The use and status of Language in Brunei Darussalam (pp. 57-74). Singapore: Springer.
  34. ↑ Dunseath, K. (1996). Aspects of language maintenance and language shift among the Chinese community in Brunei. In P. W. Martin, C. Ozog & G. Poedjosoedarmo (Eds), Language Use & Language Change in Brunei Darussalam (pp. 280-301). Athens, OH: Ohio University Center for International Studies.
  35. 1 2 Coluzzi, P. (2011). Endangered languages in Borneo: A survey among the Iban and Murut (Lun Bawang) in Temburong Brunei. Oceanic Linguistics, 49(1), 119-143.
  36. ↑ Gardiner, I. A., Deterding, D., & Yabit Alas (2019). The pronunciation of Dusun. South East Asia, 19, 14–21. On-line Version
  37. ↑ Martin, P. W., & Poedjoesoedarmo, G. (1996). An overview of the language situation in Brunei Darussalam. In P. W. Martin, A. C. K. Ozog & G. Poedjoesoedarmo (eds.), Language Use and Language Change in Brunei Darussalam (pp. 1–23). Athens, OH: Ohio University Center for International Studies.
  38. ↑ Martin, P. W., & Sercombe, P. (1996). The Penan of Brunei: Patterns of linguistic interaction. In P. W. Martin, C. Ozog & G. Poedjosoedarmo (Eds), Language Use & Language Change in Brunei Darussalam (pp. 302-311). Athens, OH: Ohio University Center for International Studies.
  39. ↑ Encyclopædia Britannica - retrieved 22-04-2007
  40. ↑ Noor Azam H-O. (2016). Bilingual education revisited: The role of Ugama Schools in the spread of bilingualism. In Noor Azam H-O., J. McLellan & D. Deterding (Eds.), The use and status of Language in Brunei Darussalam (pp. 253-265). Singapore: Springer.
  41. ↑ Ministry of Education Statistics 2004 - retrieved 22-04-2007
  42. ↑ Indian Community in Brunei - High Commission of India to Brunei Archived 6 April 2007 at the Wayback Machine - retrieved 20-04-2007
  43. ↑ Pilihan Radio, Radio Television Brunei - retrieved 20-04-2007
  44. ↑ BFBS Global Locations Archived 4 May 2007 at the Wayback Machine - retrieved 20-04-2007
  45. ↑ Filipino Organisations in Brunei, Philippines Embassy - retrieved 20-04-2007
  46. ↑ Centre for British Teachers in Brunei Archived 15 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine - retrieved 20-04-2007

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.